UNIVERSE
that is made of an infinite amount of
space, matter and time.
It is important to say that I reject
the theory that the universe is
expanding and started with a single
explosion or "big bang" because the
main piece of evidence for this, the
"red-shift" of the position of spectral
lines of other galaxies which was
explained first by Slipher as being due
to a difference in light source
velocity (Doppler effect) is more
accurately explained mostly as a
difference in light source distance by
the Bragg equation for a reflection
(diffraction) grating.
[1] note
Hubble_ultra_deep_field_high_rez_edit1
is much larger [2] Hubble ultra deep
field high rez
edit1_small.jpg Deutsch: Das Hubble
Ultra Deep Field ist ein Bild einer
kleinen Himmelsregion aufgenommen vom
Hubble-Weltraumteleskop über einen
Zeitraum vom 3. September 2003 bis 16.
Januar 2004. Dabei wurde eine
Himmelsregion ausgewählt, die kaum
störende helle Sterne im Vordergrund
enthält. Man entschied sich für ein
Zielgebiet südwestlich von Orion im
Sternbild Chemischer Ofen. English:
The Hubble Ultra Deep Field, is an
image of a small region of space in the
constellation Fornax, composited from
Hubble Space Telescope data accumulated
over a period from September 3, 2003
through January 16, 2004. The patch of
sky in which the galaxies reside was
chosen because it had a low density of
bright stars in the
near-field. Español: El Campo Ultra
Profundo del Hubble, es una imagen de
una pequeña región del espacio en la
constelación Fornax, compuesta de
datos obtenidos por el telescopio
espacial Hubble durante el período
entre el 3 de Septiembre de 2003 y el
16 de Enero de 2004. Esta parte del
cielo fue escogida por su baja densidad
de estrellas brillantes en sus
proximidades. Français : Le champ
ultra profond de Hubble, une image
d'une petite portion du ciel dans la
constellation du Fourneau, prise par le
télescope spatial Hubble du 3
septembre 2003 au 16 juillet 2004. La
portion de ciel a été choisie car
elle possède peu d'étoiles brillantes
proches. Date 2003-09-03 -
2004-01-16 Source
http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/ar
chive/releases/2004/07/image/a/warn/ Au
thor NASA and the European Space
Agency. Edited by Noodle snacks PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0d/Hubble_ultra_deep_fie
ld_high_rez_edit1.jpg
[1] note
Hubble_ultra_deep_field_high_rez_edit1
is much larger [2] Hubble ultra deep
field high rez
edit1_small.jpg Deutsch: Das Hubble
Ultra Deep Field ist ein Bild einer
kleinen Himmelsregion aufgenommen vom
Hubble-Weltraumteleskop über einen
Zeitraum vom 3. September 2003 bis 16.
Januar 2004. Dabei wurde eine
Himmelsregion ausgewählt, die kaum
störende helle Sterne im Vordergrund
enthält. Man entschied sich für ein
Zielgebiet südwestlich von Orion im
Sternbild Chemischer Ofen. English:
The Hubble Ultra Deep Field, is an
image of a small region of space in the
constellation Fornax, composited from
Hubble Space Telescope data accumulated
over a period from September 3, 2003
through January 16, 2004. The patch of
sky in which the galaxies reside was
chosen because it had a low density of
bright stars in the
near-field. Español: El Campo Ultra
Profundo del Hubble, es una imagen de
una pequeña región del espacio en la
constelación Fornax, compuesta de
datos obtenidos por el telescopio
espacial Hubble durante el período
entre el 3 de Septiembre de 2003 y el
16 de Enero de 2004. Esta parte del
cielo fue escogida por su baja densidad
de estrellas brillantes en sus
proximidades. Français : Le champ
ultra profond de Hubble, une image
d'une petite portion du ciel dans la
constellation du Fourneau, prise par le
télescope spatial Hubble du 3
septembre 2003 au 16 juillet 2004. La
portion de ciel a été choisie car
elle possède peu d'étoiles brillantes
proches. Date 2003-09-03 -
2004-01-16 Source
http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/ar
chive/releases/2004/07/image/a/warn/ Au
thor NASA and the European Space
Agency. Edited by Noodle snacks PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0d/Hubble_ultra_deep_fie
ld_high_rez_edit1.jpg
light. Light particles are the base
unit of all matter from the tiniest
particles to the largest galaxies. In
this sense light particles are the most
basic atoms.
The basic order of matter from smaller
to largest is light particles,
electrons, positrons, muons, protons,
neutrons, atoms, molecules, living
objects, planets, stars, globular
clusters, galaxies, galactic clusters.
It is important to state that, I argue
that the definition of the term
"photon" perhaps should be changed to
refer to an individual material light
particle, what Isaac Newton called a
"corpuscle", as opposed to a quantum of
photons which represents the
time-independent energy of a specific
frequency of light.
[1] note
Hubble_ultra_deep_field_high_rez_edit1
is much larger [2] Hubble ultra deep
field high rez
edit1_small.jpg Deutsch: Das Hubble
Ultra Deep Field ist ein Bild einer
kleinen Himmelsregion aufgenommen vom
Hubble-Weltraumteleskop über einen
Zeitraum vom 3. September 2003 bis 16.
Januar 2004. Dabei wurde eine
Himmelsregion ausgewählt, die kaum
störende helle Sterne im Vordergrund
enthält. Man entschied sich für ein
Zielgebiet südwestlich von Orion im
Sternbild Chemischer Ofen. English:
The Hubble Ultra Deep Field, is an
image of a small region of space in the
constellation Fornax, composited from
Hubble Space Telescope data accumulated
over a period from September 3, 2003
through January 16, 2004. The patch of
sky in which the galaxies reside was
chosen because it had a low density of
bright stars in the
near-field. Español: El Campo Ultra
Profundo del Hubble, es una imagen de
una pequeña región del espacio en la
constelación Fornax, compuesta de
datos obtenidos por el telescopio
espacial Hubble durante el período
entre el 3 de Septiembre de 2003 y el
16 de Enero de 2004. Esta parte del
cielo fue escogida por su baja densidad
de estrellas brillantes en sus
proximidades. Français : Le champ
ultra profond de Hubble, une image
d'une petite portion du ciel dans la
constellation du Fourneau, prise par le
télescope spatial Hubble du 3
septembre 2003 au 16 juillet 2004. La
portion de ciel a été choisie car
elle possède peu d'étoiles brillantes
proches. Date 2003-09-03 -
2004-01-16 Source
http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/ar
chive/releases/2004/07/image/a/warn/ Au
thor NASA and the European Space
Agency. Edited by Noodle snacks PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0d/Hubble_ultra_deep_fie
ld_high_rez_edit1.jpg
The same light particles that have
always been, continue to move in the
space that has always been.
[1] note
Hubble_ultra_deep_field_high_rez_edit1
is much larger [2] Hubble ultra deep
field high rez
edit1_small.jpg Deutsch: Das Hubble
Ultra Deep Field ist ein Bild einer
kleinen Himmelsregion aufgenommen vom
Hubble-Weltraumteleskop über einen
Zeitraum vom 3. September 2003 bis 16.
Januar 2004. Dabei wurde eine
Himmelsregion ausgewählt, die kaum
störende helle Sterne im Vordergrund
enthält. Man entschied sich für ein
Zielgebiet südwestlich von Orion im
Sternbild Chemischer Ofen. English:
The Hubble Ultra Deep Field, is an
image of a small region of space in the
constellation Fornax, composited from
Hubble Space Telescope data accumulated
over a period from September 3, 2003
through January 16, 2004. The patch of
sky in which the galaxies reside was
chosen because it had a low density of
bright stars in the
near-field. Español: El Campo Ultra
Profundo del Hubble, es una imagen de
una pequeña región del espacio en la
constelación Fornax, compuesta de
datos obtenidos por el telescopio
espacial Hubble durante el período
entre el 3 de Septiembre de 2003 y el
16 de Enero de 2004. Esta parte del
cielo fue escogida por su baja densidad
de estrellas brillantes en sus
proximidades. Français : Le champ
ultra profond de Hubble, une image
d'une petite portion du ciel dans la
constellation du Fourneau, prise par le
télescope spatial Hubble du 3
septembre 2003 au 16 juillet 2004. La
portion de ciel a été choisie car
elle possède peu d'étoiles brillantes
proches. Date 2003-09-03 -
2004-01-16 Source
http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/ar
chive/releases/2004/07/image/a/warn/ Au
thor NASA and the European Space
Agency. Edited by Noodle snacks PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0d/Hubble_ultra_deep_fie
ld_high_rez_edit1.jpg
created or destroyed. Matter can never
be converted into motion, and motion
can never be converted into matter.
Light particles are moved by gravity,
which may be the result of particle
collision or an inherent
action-at-a-distance force. Light
particles may collide with each other
and become trapped in locations of high
photon density.
[1] note
Hubble_ultra_deep_field_high_rez_edit1
is much larger [2] Hubble ultra deep
field high rez
edit1_small.jpg Deutsch: Das Hubble
Ultra Deep Field ist ein Bild einer
kleinen Himmelsregion aufgenommen vom
Hubble-Weltraumteleskop über einen
Zeitraum vom 3. September 2003 bis 16.
Januar 2004. Dabei wurde eine
Himmelsregion ausgewählt, die kaum
störende helle Sterne im Vordergrund
enthält. Man entschied sich für ein
Zielgebiet südwestlich von Orion im
Sternbild Chemischer Ofen. English:
The Hubble Ultra Deep Field, is an
image of a small region of space in the
constellation Fornax, composited from
Hubble Space Telescope data accumulated
over a period from September 3, 2003
through January 16, 2004. The patch of
sky in which the galaxies reside was
chosen because it had a low density of
bright stars in the
near-field. Español: El Campo Ultra
Profundo del Hubble, es una imagen de
una pequeña región del espacio en la
constelación Fornax, compuesta de
datos obtenidos por el telescopio
espacial Hubble durante el período
entre el 3 de Septiembre de 2003 y el
16 de Enero de 2004. Esta parte del
cielo fue escogida por su baja densidad
de estrellas brillantes en sus
proximidades. Français : Le champ
ultra profond de Hubble, une image
d'une petite portion du ciel dans la
constellation du Fourneau, prise par le
télescope spatial Hubble du 3
septembre 2003 au 16 juillet 2004. La
portion de ciel a été choisie car
elle possède peu d'étoiles brillantes
proches. Date 2003-09-03 -
2004-01-16 Source
http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/ar
chive/releases/2004/07/image/a/warn/ Au
thor NASA and the European Space
Agency. Edited by Noodle snacks PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0d/Hubble_ultra_deep_fie
ld_high_rez_edit1.jpg
each other and so form structures such
as protons, atoms, molecules, planets,
stars, galaxies, and clusters of
galaxies.
This forming of light particles into
atoms may be the result of particle
collision, gravitation (an attraction
of matter with itself) or a combination
of both.
That light particles may become trapped
or tangled with each other, because of
the limitation of movement in a densely
filled space, may be the reason photons
form Hydrogen, Hydrogen forming
nebulas, nebulas forming stars, and
stars forming galaxies.
[1] note
Hubble_ultra_deep_field_high_rez_edit1
is much larger [2] Hubble ultra deep
field high rez
edit1_small.jpg Deutsch: Das Hubble
Ultra Deep Field ist ein Bild einer
kleinen Himmelsregion aufgenommen vom
Hubble-Weltraumteleskop über einen
Zeitraum vom 3. September 2003 bis 16.
Januar 2004. Dabei wurde eine
Himmelsregion ausgewählt, die kaum
störende helle Sterne im Vordergrund
enthält. Man entschied sich für ein
Zielgebiet südwestlich von Orion im
Sternbild Chemischer Ofen. English:
The Hubble Ultra Deep Field, is an
image of a small region of space in the
constellation Fornax, composited from
Hubble Space Telescope data accumulated
over a period from September 3, 2003
through January 16, 2004. The patch of
sky in which the galaxies reside was
chosen because it had a low density of
bright stars in the
near-field. Español: El Campo Ultra
Profundo del Hubble, es una imagen de
una pequeña región del espacio en la
constelación Fornax, compuesta de
datos obtenidos por el telescopio
espacial Hubble durante el período
entre el 3 de Septiembre de 2003 y el
16 de Enero de 2004. Esta parte del
cielo fue escogida por su baja densidad
de estrellas brillantes en sus
proximidades. Français : Le champ
ultra profond de Hubble, une image
d'une petite portion du ciel dans la
constellation du Fourneau, prise par le
télescope spatial Hubble du 3
septembre 2003 au 16 juillet 2004. La
portion de ciel a été choisie car
elle possède peu d'étoiles brillantes
proches. Date 2003-09-03 -
2004-01-16 Source
http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/ar
chive/releases/2004/07/image/a/warn/ Au
thor NASA and the European Space
Agency. Edited by Noodle snacks PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0d/Hubble_ultra_deep_fie
ld_high_rez_edit1.jpg
see are only a tiny part of the
universe. We will never see most of the
universe because no light particles
from there can ever reach us.
Most galaxies are too far away for even
one particle of light they emit to be
going in the exact direction of our
tiny location, and all the light
particles they emit are captured by
atoms in between there and here.
[1] note
Hubble_ultra_deep_field_high_rez_edit1
is much larger [2] Hubble ultra deep
field high rez
edit1_small.jpg Deutsch: Das Hubble
Ultra Deep Field ist ein Bild einer
kleinen Himmelsregion aufgenommen vom
Hubble-Weltraumteleskop über einen
Zeitraum vom 3. September 2003 bis 16.
Januar 2004. Dabei wurde eine
Himmelsregion ausgewählt, die kaum
störende helle Sterne im Vordergrund
enthält. Man entschied sich für ein
Zielgebiet südwestlich von Orion im
Sternbild Chemischer Ofen. English:
The Hubble Ultra Deep Field, is an
image of a small region of space in the
constellation Fornax, composited from
Hubble Space Telescope data accumulated
over a period from September 3, 2003
through January 16, 2004. The patch of
sky in which the galaxies reside was
chosen because it had a low density of
bright stars in the
near-field. Español: El Campo Ultra
Profundo del Hubble, es una imagen de
una pequeña región del espacio en la
constelación Fornax, compuesta de
datos obtenidos por el telescopio
espacial Hubble durante el período
entre el 3 de Septiembre de 2003 y el
16 de Enero de 2004. Esta parte del
cielo fue escogida por su baja densidad
de estrellas brillantes en sus
proximidades. Français : Le champ
ultra profond de Hubble, une image
d'une petite portion du ciel dans la
constellation du Fourneau, prise par le
télescope spatial Hubble du 3
septembre 2003 au 16 juillet 2004. La
portion de ciel a été choisie car
elle possède peu d'étoiles brillantes
proches. Date 2003-09-03 -
2004-01-16 Source
http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/ar
chive/releases/2004/07/image/a/warn/ Au
thor NASA and the European Space
Agency. Edited by Noodle snacks PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0d/Hubble_ultra_deep_fie
ld_high_rez_edit1.jpg
Light particles move from highly dense
volumes of space to volumes of less
density. In low density volumes, light
particles slowly accumulate to form
atoms of Hydrogen and Helium which
exist as gas clouds (like the
Magellanic Clouds or Orion nebula).
These gas clouds, called nebulae
continue to accumulate trapped light
particles. At points of high density
planets and stars form and the cloud is
eventually dense enough to become a
galaxy of stars. The stars emit light
particles back out to the rest of the
universe, where the light again becomes
trapped and forms new clouds. Around
each star are many planets and pieces
of matter. On many of the planets
rotating around stars, living objects
evolve that can copy themselves by
converting matter around them into more
of them. Living objects need matter to
replace matter lost from the constant
emitting of light particles (decay).
Like bacteria, these living objects
grow in number, with the most
successful organisms occupying and
moving around many stars. These
advanced organisms then move the groups
of stars they control, as a globular
cluster, away from the plane of the
spiral galaxy. As time continues, all
of the stars of a galaxy are occupied
by living objects who have organized
their stars into globular clusters, and
these globular clusters together, form
a globular galaxy. The globular galaxy
may then exist for a long time living
off the matter emitting from stars, in
addition to the accumulation of light
particles from external sources.
So free light particles are trapped
into volumes of space that grow in
density first forming atoms, then gas
clouds, then stars, a spiral galaxy,
and finally a globular galaxy.
Stars at our scale may be light
particles at a much larger scale, just
as light particles at our scale may be
stars at a much smaller scale. This
system may go on infinitely in both
larger and smaller scale.
[1] note
Hubble_ultra_deep_field_high_rez_edit1
is much larger Hubble ultra deep
field high rez
edit1_small.jpg Deutsch: Das Hubble
Ultra Deep Field ist ein Bild einer
kleinen Himmelsregion aufgenommen vom
Hubble-Weltraumteleskop über einen
Zeitraum vom 3. September 2003 bis 16.
Januar 2004. Dabei wurde eine
Himmelsregion ausgewählt, die kaum
störende helle Sterne im Vordergrund
enthält. Man entschied sich für ein
Zielgebiet südwestlich von Orion im
Sternbild Chemischer Ofen. English:
The Hubble Ultra Deep Field, is an
image of a small region of space in the
constellation Fornax, composited from
Hubble Space Telescope data accumulated
over a period from September 3, 2003
through January 16, 2004. The patch of
sky in which the galaxies reside was
chosen because it had a low density of
bright stars in the
near-field. Español: El Campo Ultra
Profundo del Hubble, es una imagen de
una pequeña región del espacio en la
constelación Fornax, compuesta de
datos obtenidos por el telescopio
espacial Hubble durante el período
entre el 3 de Septiembre de 2003 y el
16 de Enero de 2004. Esta parte del
cielo fue escogida por su baja densidad
de estrellas brillantes en sus
proximidades. Français : Le champ
ultra profond de Hubble, une image
d'une petite portion du ciel dans la
constellation du Fourneau, prise par le
télescope spatial Hubble du 3
septembre 2003 au 16 juillet 2004. La
portion de ciel a été choisie car
elle possède peu d'étoiles brillantes
proches. Date 2003-09-03 -
2004-01-16 Source
http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/ar
chive/releases/2004/07/image/a/warn/ Au
thor NASA and the European Space
Agency. Edited by Noodle snacks PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0d/Hubble_ultra_deep_fie
ld_high_rez_edit1.jpg
[2] LDN 1622: Dark Nebula in
Orion Data: Digitized Sky Survey
(POSS-II), Color Composite: Noel
Carboni Explanation: The silhouette
of an intriguing dark nebula inhabits
this cosmic scene, based on images from
the Palomar Observatory Sky Survey.
Lynds' Dark Nebula (LDN) 1622 appears
against a faint background of glowing
hydrogen gas only easily seen in long
telescopic exposures of the region. LDN
1622 lies near the plane of our Milky
Way Galaxy, close on the sky to
Barnard's Loop - a large cloud
surrounding the rich complex of
emission nebulae found in the Belt and
Sword of Orion. But the obscuring dust
of LDN 1622 is thought to be much
closer than Orion's more famous
nebulae, perhaps only 500 light-years
away. At that distance, this 1 degree
wide field of view would span less than
10 light-years. PD
source: http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/image/
0705/ldn1622_carboni.jpg
to me. The supposed red-shifted calcium
absorption lines may be a mistaken
observation, for one reason because of
the different sizes of spectra as
clearly seen in the 1936 Humason image,
and because distance of light source
changes the position, but not the
frequency of spectra.
[1] Image of a spectral line shift from
a close and distant fluorescent
lamp. GNU
source: Ted Huntington
[2] The simple trigonometry that shows
that two light sources at different
distances cannot achieve the same angle
at the same location on a horizontal
diffraction grating. GNU
source: Ted Huntington
LIFE
form.
Light particles get tangled and
absorbed and the density of the volume
of space where the Milky Way forms
increases until dense centers form
atoms, and then stars.The formation of
a galaxy can be viewed as an empty
volume of space that starts with a
single light particle and slowly gains
more and more light particles. As the
number of light particles grows,
protons and atoms are formed. As the
gain in light particles continues, the
first stars are created.
If we imagine the growth of a galaxy
from one light particle to a state of
500 billion stars as an exponential
growth (for example the galaxy grows at
1% every million years), 84% of that
time will be a group of light particles
too small in number to even form a
single star, the other 16% will be the
galaxy after its first star to 500
billion stars.
Perhaps a nebula can be called a galaxy
if it contains at least one point of
density that emits light particles with
visible frequency.
[1] Description This image is
mosaic of multiple shots on
large-format film. It comprises all 360
degrees of the galaxy from our vantage.
Photography was done in Ft. Davis,
Texas for the Northern hemisphere shots
and from Broken Hill, New South Wales,
Australia, for the southern portions.
Note the dust lanes, which obscure our
view of some features beyond them.
Infrared imaging reaches into these
regions, and radio astronomy can look
all the way through with less detail.
The very center, however, shows a
window to the farther side. In the
center, stars are mostly very old and
this causes the more yellow color. The
final file is 1.5GB, and resolves
details of less than one arcminute.
Faintest stars are magnitude 11. There
are 21 pixels of horizontal overlap at
the ends, with the right end slightly
brighter than the corresponding pixels
on the left. Date Source
http://www.digitalskyllc.com (The
image was uploaded to en.wiki at 17:16,
21 September 2006 by Twtunes. Author
Digital Sky LLC CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0a/Milkyway_pan1.jpg
[2] note
Hubble_ultra_deep_field_high_rez_edit1
is much larger [2] Hubble ultra deep
field high rez
edit1_small.jpg Deutsch: Das Hubble
Ultra Deep Field ist ein Bild einer
kleinen Himmelsregion aufgenommen vom
Hubble-Weltraumteleskop über einen
Zeitraum vom 3. September 2003 bis 16.
Januar 2004. Dabei wurde eine
Himmelsregion ausgewählt, die kaum
störende helle Sterne im Vordergrund
enthält. Man entschied sich für ein
Zielgebiet südwestlich von Orion im
Sternbild Chemischer Ofen. English:
The Hubble Ultra Deep Field, is an
image of a small region of space in the
constellation Fornax, composited from
Hubble Space Telescope data accumulated
over a period from September 3, 2003
through January 16, 2004. The patch of
sky in which the galaxies reside was
chosen because it had a low density of
bright stars in the
near-field. Español: El Campo Ultra
Profundo del Hubble, es una imagen de
una pequeña región del espacio en la
constelación Fornax, compuesta de
datos obtenidos por el telescopio
espacial Hubble durante el período
entre el 3 de Septiembre de 2003 y el
16 de Enero de 2004. Esta parte del
cielo fue escogida por su baja densidad
de estrellas brillantes en sus
proximidades. Français : Le champ
ultra profond de Hubble, une image
d'une petite portion du ciel dans la
constellation du Fourneau, prise par le
télescope spatial Hubble du 3
septembre 2003 au 16 juillet 2004. La
portion de ciel a été choisie car
elle possède peu d'étoiles brillantes
proches. Date 2003-09-03 -
2004-01-16 Source
http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/ar
chive/releases/2004/07/image/a/warn/ Au
thor NASA and the European Space
Agency. Edited by Noodle snacks PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0d/Hubble_ultra_deep_fie
ld_high_rez_edit1.jpg
Galaxy forms.
[1] Description English: M8 Lagoon
Nebula in Sagittarius Date 26 June
2009 Source Own
work Author Hewholooks CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2f/M8HunterWilson.jpg
[2] NGC 7023: The Iris Nebula Credit
& Copyright: Daniel López,
IAC Explanation: Like delicate cosmic
petals, these clouds of interstellar
dust and gas have blossomed 1,300
light-years away in the fertile star
fields of the constellation Cepheus.
Sometimes called the Iris Nebula and
dutifully cataloged as NGC 7023, this
is not the only nebula in the sky to
evoke the imagery of flowers. Still,
this beautiful digital image shows off
the Iris Nebula's range of colors and
symmetries in impressive detail. Within
the Iris, dusty nebular material
surrounds a hot, young star. The
dominant color of the brighter
reflection nebula is blue,
characteristic of dust grains
reflecting starlight. Central filaments
of the dusty clouds glow with a faint
reddish photoluminesence as some dust
grains effectively convert the star's
invisible ultraviolet radiation to
visible red light. Infrared
observations indicate that this nebula
may contain complex carbon molecules
known as PAHs. As shown here, the
bright blue portion of the Iris Nebula
is about six light-years across. PD
source: http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/image/
1011/IRIS_IAC80_DLopez900c.jpg
Galaxy reach another star using a ship.
I am presuming that this occurs perhaps
5 billion years after the first star in
the Milky Way Galaxy. Presumably the
Milky Way Galaxy is mostly a nebula at
this stage.
[1] close up
of: Description English: M8 Lagoon
Nebula in Sagittarius Date 26 June
2009 Source Own
work Author Hewholooks CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2f/M8HunterWilson.jpg
[2] Description The photograph,
taken by NASA's Hubble Space Telescope,
captures a small region within M17, a
hotbed of star formation. M17, also
known as the Omega or Swan Nebula, is
located about 5500 light-years away in
the constellation Sagittarius. The
wave-like patterns of gas have been
sculpted and illuminated by a torrent
of ultraviolet radiation from young,
massive stars, which lie outside the
picture to the upper left. The glow of
these patterns accentuates the
three-dimensional structure of the
gases. The ultraviolet radiation is
carving and heating the surfaces of
cold hydrogen gas clouds. The warmed
surfaces glow orange and red in this
photograph. The intense heat and
pressure cause some material to stream
away from those surfaces, creating the
glowing veil of even hotter greenish
gas that masks background structures.
The pressure on the tips of the waves
may trigger new star formation within
them. The image, roughly 3
light-years across, was taken May
29-30, 1999, with the Wide Field
Planetary Camera 2. The colors in the
image represent various gases. Red
represents sulfur; green, hydrogen; and
blue, oxygen. Date 24 April
2003 Source
http://spacetelescope.org/images/html/he
ic0305a.html (direct link)
http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/archive
/releases/2003/13/image/a/ Author
NASA, ESA and J. Hester (ASU) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/72/Omega_Nebula.jpg
100,000 stars in the Milky Way Galaxy.
These estimates are very uncertain. If
we imagine that matter accumulates at a
rate of 1% every billion years, then
the first star forms in the Milky Way
Nebula after 138 billion years.
Presuming 5 billion years is needed to
evolve living objects advanced enough
to build ships to go to other stars
puts this at 143 billion years after
the first light particle of the Milky
Way (and 22 billion years before now).
If these living objects then colonize
stars at 1% growth every billion years,
forming a 100,000 star globular cluster
would take 1e5=1.000000001^y y=12
billion years. This puts this
achievement at 155 billion years after
the theoretical first light particle of
the Milky Way, and 10 billion years
before the Milky Way has 500 billion
stars - similar to the present state of
the Milky Way.
[1] Description The globular
cluster Omega Centauri — with as many
as ten million stars — is seen in all
its splendour in this image captured
with the WFI camera from ESO's La Silla
Observatory. The image shows only the
central part of the cluster — about
the size of the full moon on the sky
(half a degree). North is up, East is
to the left. This colour image is a
composite of B, V and I filtered
images. Note that because WFI is
equipped with a mosaic detector, there
are two small gaps in the image which
were filled with lower quality data
from the Digitized Sky Survey. Date
2008 Source
http://www.eso.org/public/outreach/
press-rel/pr-2008/phot-44-08.html Autho
r ESO CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Omega_Centauri_
by_ESO.jpg/638px-Omega_Centauri_by_ESO.j
pg
[2] Description This image is
mosaic of multiple shots on
large-format film. It comprises all 360
degrees of the galaxy from our vantage.
Photography was done in Ft. Davis,
Texas for the Northern hemisphere shots
and from Broken Hill, New South Wales,
Australia, for the southern portions.
Note the dust lanes, which obscure our
view of some features beyond them.
Infrared imaging reaches into these
regions, and radio astronomy can look
all the way through with less detail.
The very center, however, shows a
window to the farther side. In the
center, stars are mostly very old and
this causes the more yellow color. The
final file is 1.5GB, and resolves
details of less than one arcminute.
Faintest stars are magnitude 11. There
are 21 pixels of horizontal overlap at
the ends, with the right end slightly
brighter than the corresponding pixels
on the left. Date Source
http://www.digitalskyllc.com (The
image was uploaded to en.wiki at 17:16,
21 September 2006 by Twtunes. Author
Digital Sky LLC CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0a/Milkyway_pan1.jpg
rotate forms as a center of high photon
density, perhaps from particles that
accumulate in a nebula or in the
remains of an dead star.
It may take a very long time, perhaps
even 5 billion years or more for the
star and planets to condense and sweep
up most of the remaining matter. This
process increases the pressure inside
stars and planets, while decreasing the
average temperature around and at the
surface of stars and planets.
My opinion is that stars contain a
solid center made of highly compressed
unmoving light particles, in the
middle, where there is more free space,
atoms may form and there may be enough
space for liquid to flow, as light
particles get nearer to the surface
where there is much more open space,
free light particles, and atoms habe
enough space to be viewed as being in a
gas form as they escape the inside of
the star. I view large planets as
having the same basic structure as a
star- but being composed of far fewer
light particles. {check with supernova
remnants} The density of the star the
earth rotates is similar to that of a
liquid. The most popular theory to
explain how stars give off so many
photons is that these photons exit as a
result of Hydrogen atomically fusing
into Helium, and I want to add my
opinion that simply light particles
being trapped inside a planet or star
is enough to explain why photons are
emitted from stars and planets. In
addition, atoms like Hydrogen and
Helium may be separated into their
source photons. Perhaps the reaction is
similar to the outer part (mantle) of
the earth where red hot liquid iron
emits photons. We obviously do not
explain that red hot molten metal as
being the result of nuclear fusion, and
all those photons are clearly not the
result of oxygen combustion- but may be
because of many particles moving into
the newly contacted empty space.
Clearly there are many photons exiting
stars every second, and each star is
losing large amounts of matter in the
form of photons. In addition, the most
popular theory explains that most atoms
heavier than Hydrogen and no heavier
than Iron are made in stars, and atoms
larger than iron can only be made in
supernovae. But this seems obviously
wrong when we see clearly that larger
atoms can easily be built up at
relatively cold temperatures by the
simple bombardment of helium and carbon
ions. These kinds of reactions may even
occur at the surface of a star.
[1] Description English: The Sun
photographed by the Atmospheric Imaging
Assembly (AIA 304) of NASA's Solar
Dynamics Observatory (SDO). This is
a false color image of the sun observed
in the extreme ultraviolet region of
the spectrum. For example,similar
image Français : Le soleil,
photographié depuis le Solar Dynamics
Observatory de la NASA. Date
2010-08-19T00:32:21Z (ISO
8601) Source NASA/SDO
(AIA). Author NASA/SDO (AIA). PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/The_Sun_by_the_
Atmospheric_Imaging_Assembly_of_NASAs_So
lar_Dynamics_Observatory_-_20100819.jpg/
628px-The_Sun_by_the_Atmospheric_Imaging
_Assembly_of_NASAs_Solar_Dynamics_Observ
atory_-_20100819.jpg
[2] Summary Description The star
formation region N11B in the LMC taken
by WFPC2 on the NASA/ESA Hubble Space
Telescope. Date Source
http://www.spacetelescope.org/image
s/html/heic0411a.html Author
NASA/ESA and the Hubble Heritage
Team
(AURA/STScI)/HEIC Permission (Reusing
this file) ESA Public Domain, as
per
http://www.spacetelescope.org/copyright.
html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6c/Heic0411a.jpg
gravitation, heavier masses move closer
to the center and lighter masses move
farther out.
[1] Distribution of mass from Newtonian
gravitation after 4
minutes: Blue=high mass Green=medium
mass Red=low mass GNU
source: Ted Huntington
the star, they are red hot with liquid
rock and metals on the surface. Lighter
atoms move to the surface of the
planets. Larger planets are surrounded
by gas.
As free moving matter is absorbed by
the star and planets, the average
temperature of the star system is
lowered. As the temperature of the
planets and moons decrease, water and
other molecules condense and fall to
the surface.
(Probably the star and planets form at
the same time.)
[1] an 19, 2005 � For the past five
days, forecasters at the NOAA Space
Environment Center in Boulder, Colo.,
have observed all types of space
weather: radio blackouts, solar
radiation storms and geomagnetic
storms. Currently, space weather
forecasters are observing a moderate
geomagnetic storm (G-2 on the NOAA
Space Weather Scales) and a minor (S-1)
solar radiation storm. Earlier
Wednesday an X-class flare produced a
strong (R-3) radio blackout. (Click
image for larger view of the sun taken
on Jan. 19, 2005, at 2:19 p.m. EST.
Click here for high resolution version,
which is a large file. Please credit
European Space Agency-NASA.) PD
source: http://www.noaanews.noaa.gov/sto
ries2005/images/sun-soho011905-1919z.jpg
ways:
1) spherical planet collides with
earth, moon forms from remaining matter
in ring around earth.
2) spherical planet is
caught in earth orbit (perhaps after a
collision).
3) moon of earth forms naturally from
original matter of star system in orbit
around earth.
[1] Image of moon superimposed on
Venus PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/dd/Full_Moon_Luc_Viatour
.jpg
[2] an 19, 2005 � For the past five
days, forecasters at the NOAA Space
Environment Center in Boulder, Colo.,
have observed all types of space
weather: radio blackouts, solar
radiation storms and geomagnetic
storms. Currently, space weather
forecasters are observing a moderate
geomagnetic storm (G-2 on the NOAA
Space Weather Scales) and a minor (S-1)
solar radiation storm. Earlier
Wednesday an X-class flare produced a
strong (R-3) radio blackout. (Click
image for larger view of the sun taken
on Jan. 19, 2005, at 2:19 p.m. EST.
Click here for high resolution version,
which is a large file. Please credit
European Space Agency-NASA.) PD
source: http://www.noaanews.noaa.gov/sto
ries2005/images/sun-soho011905-1919z.jpg
Hadean {HA DEen} Eon.
[1] Geologic Time Scale 2009 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.geosociety.org/scienc
e/timescale/timescl.pdf
4,571 million years old.
[1] The ''Zag'' meteorite fell to Earth
in 1988 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/t
ech/783048.stm
Apollo missions (4.53 billions old).
[1]
http://www.nasm.si.edu/exhibitions/attm/
atmimages/S73-15446.f.jpg
http://www.nasm.si.edu/exhibitions/attm/
nojs/wl.br.1.html
source:
rock turns into a solid thin crust.
Water condenses and falls to the
surface, filling the lowest parts of
the land to make the first Earth
oceans, lakes, and rivers.
[1] USGS Photo by Tim Orr Pahoehoe
lava breaks out of the crust along a
flow margin PD
source: http://www.nps.gov/havo/parkmgmt
/upload/havo_manage_usgs_20080304_tro381
7_x800.jpg
[2] English: Ultraviolet image of
Venus' clouds as seen by the Pioneer
Venus Orbiter (February 26, 1979). The
immense C- or Y-shaped features which
are visible only in these wavelengths
are individually short lived, but
reform often enough to be considered a
permanent feature of Venus' clouds. The
mechanism by which Venus' clouds absorb
ultraviolet is not well understood. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Venuspioneeruv.
jpg/953px-Venuspioneeruv.jpg
evidence that the crust and liquid
water are on the surface of earth. A
terrestrial zircon is not from a
meteorite.
[1]
http://www.geology.wisc.edu/zircon/Earli
est%20Piece/Images/8.jpg
source:
phosphates and sugars, the components
of living objects, form on Earth.
These molecules are made in the oceans,
fresh water, and atmosphere of earth
(and other planets) by lightning, light
particles with ultraviolet frequency
from the Sun, and from ocean floor
volcanoes.
[1] The two optical isomers of alanine,
D-Alanine and
L-Alanine D-glucose BOTH PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/65/D%2BL-Alanine.gif
and http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiped
ia/commons/thumb/5/5a/D-glucose-chain-3D
-balls.png/640px-D-glucose-chain-3D-ball
s.png
Ribonucleic acid (RNA) may be the first
nucleic acid to form. One of these RNA
molecules may be the ancestor of all of
life on Earth.
The initial building blocks of living
objects are easily formed, but
assembling them into longer-chain
molecules, or polymers, is more
difficult. Amino acids link up to form
polymers called proteins, simple fatty
acids plus alcohols link up to form
lipids (oils and fats), simple sugars
like glucose and sucrose link together
to form complex carbohydrates and
starches, and finally, the nucleotide
bases (plus phosphates and sugars) link
up to form nucleic acids, the genetic
code of organisms, known as RNA and
DNA.
Possibly all proteins, carbohydrates
and lipids are strictly the products of
living objects.
[1] Ribonucleic acid (English
pronunciation:
/raɪbɵ.njuːˌkleɪ.ɨk ˈæsɪd/),
or RNA, is one of the three major
macromolecules (along with DNA and
proteins) that are essential for all
known forms of life. UNKNOWN
source: http://dna-rna.net/wp-content/up
loads/2011/07/rna.jpg
molecules.
Perhaps RNA molecules, called
"ribozymes" evolve which can make
copies of RNA, by connecting free
floating nucleotides that match a
nucleotide on the same or a different
RNA, without any proteins. But until
such ribozyme RNA molecules are found,
the only molecule known to copy nucleic
acids are proteins called polymerases.
[1] Description Full-Length
Hammerhead Ribozyme color-coded so that
the 5'-end of each RNA strand is blue
and the 3'-end is red. The individual
nucleotides are represented as
toothpicks, and the phosphodiester
backbone as a narrow tube. From
Protein Data Bank ID 2GOZ. Date
17 June 2007 Source Own
work Author William G.
Scott GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/28/Full_length_hammerhea
d_ribozyme.png
Transfer RNA molecules evolve (tRNA),
and link amimo acids into proteins
using other RNA molecules (mRNA) as a
template.
For the first time, a nucleic acid
functions both as a template for
building other nucleic acid molecules,
and also as a template for building
proteins (with the help of tRNA
molecules).
This protein assembly system is the
main system responsible for all the
proteins on Earth.
Part of each tRNA molecule bonds with a
specific amino acid, and a 3 nucleotide
sequence from a different part of the
tRNA molecule bonds with the opposite
matching 3 nucleotide sequence on an
mRNA molecule.
[1] Source : ''Role of the
Ribosome'' University of Texas Medical
Branch UNKNOWN
source: http://ead.univ-angers.fr/~jaspa
rd/Page2/COURS/7RelStructFonction/2Bioch
imie/1SyntheseProteines/3Figures/4Organi
tes/2Ribosomes/6Polysome.gif
Ribosomal RNA (rRNA).
The ribosome may function as a
protocell, providing a platform for
more efficient protein production. A
single RNA may contain all the
instructions needed to make more
ribosomes.
Ribosomes are the cellular organelles
that carry out protein synthesis,
through a process called translation.
They are found in both prokaryotes and
eukaryotes. These molecular machines
are responsible for accurately
translating the linear genetic code on
the messenger RNA (mRNA), into a linear
sequence of amino acids to produce a
protein.
[1] Description English:
Illustration of tRNA building peptide
chain Date 1 March 2009 Source
Own work Author
Boumphreyfr CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0f/Peptide_syn.png
[2] Source : ''Role of the
Ribosome'' University of Texas Medical
Branch UNKNOWN
source: http://ead.univ-angers.fr/~jaspa
rd/Page2/COURS/7RelStructFonction/2Bioch
imie/1SyntheseProteines/3Figures/4Organi
tes/2Ribosomes/6Polysome.gif
protein is called an RNA polymerase,
and may be more efficient than RNA
itself, at copying other RNA molecules,
or may be the first molecule that can
copy RNA.
Eventually an mRNA that codes for the
necessary tRNA, and RNA polymerase may
be copied many times.
[1] RNA is a versatile molecule. In its
most familiar role, RNA acts as an
intermediary, carrying genetic
information from the DNA to the
machinery of protein synthesis. RNA
also plays more active roles,
performing many of the catalytic and
recognition functions normally reserved
for proteins. In fact, most of the RNA
in cells is found in ribosomes--our
protein-synthesizing machines--and the
transfer RNA molecules used to add each
new amino acid to growing proteins. In
addition, countless small RNA molecules
are involved in regulating, processing
and disposing of the constant traffic
of messenger RNA. The enzyme RNA
polymerase carries the weighty
responsibility of creating all of these
different RNA molecules. The RNA
Factory RNA polymerase is a huge
factory with many moving parts. The one
shown here, from PDB entry 1i6h, is
from yeast cells. It is composed of a
dozen different proteins. Together,
they form a machine that surrounds DNA
strands, unwinds them, and builds an
RNA strand based on the information
held inside the DNA. Once the enzyme
gets started, RNA polymerase marches
confidently along the DNA copying RNA
strands thousands of nucleotides
long. Accuracy As you might expect,
RNA polymerase needs to be accurate in
its copying of genetic information. To
improve its accuracy, it performs a
simple proofreading step as it builds
an RNA strand. The active site is
designed to be able to remove
nucleotides as well as add them to the
growing strand. The enzyme tends to
hover around mismatched nucleotides
longer than properly added ones, giving
the enzyme time to remove them. This
process is somewhat wasteful, since
proper nucleotides are also
occasionally removed, but this is a
small price to pay for creating better
RNA transcripts. Overall, RNA
polymerase makes an error about once in
10,000 nucleotides added, or about once
per RNA strand created. Poisoning
Polymerase Since RNA polymerase is
absolutely essential for the life of
the cell, it is a sensitive target for
poisons and toxins. The most powerful
of these poisons is alpha-amanitin, a
small circular peptide created by the
death cap mushroom. Eating even one of
these mushrooms will lead to coma and
death in a manner of days, as the
poison attacks RNA polymerase
throughout the body. Surprisingly, it
binds on the back side of RNA
polymerase, away from the active site
and away from the binding site for the
DNA and RNA. It does not physically
block the active site, like most
inhibitors, but instead jams the
mechanism of the enzyme. RNA polymerase
is a highly mobile enzyme, that flexes
and changes shape as it performs the
sequential steps of binding to DNA,
unwinding it, and then building the RNA
strand. As seen in PDB entry 1k83, the
poison binds between two subunits of
the protein, gluing them together and
blocking these essential motions. PD
source: http://www.pdb.org/pdb/education
_discussion/molecule_of_the_month/images
/1i6h-composite.gif
(DNA) molecule. A protein evolves that
can assemble DNA from RNA; a
ribonucleotide reductase.
This protein changes ribonucleotides
into deoxyribonucleotides, which allows
the first DNA molecule on Earth to be
assembled.
[1] Description Crystallographic
structure of the ribonucleotide
reductase protein R1E from Salmonella
typhimurium. The protein is rainbow
colored (N-terminus = blue, C-terminus
= red) while deoxyadenosine
triphosphate is show as sticks and a
complexed magnesium ion as a grey
sphere.[1] ↑ PDB 1PEU; Uppsten M,
Färnegårdh M, Jordan A, Eliasson R,
Eklund H, Uhlin U (June 2003).
''Structure of the large subunit of
class Ib ribonucleotide reductase from
Salmonella typhimurium and its
complexes with allosteric effectors''.
J. Mol. Biol. 330 (1): 87–97. PMID
12818204. Date 28 February
2008 Source Own
work Author Boghog2 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/1PEU_R1E.png/10
24px-1PEU_R1E.png
[2] Description English: The
reaction mechanism of ribonucleotide
reductase Date 14 January 2006
(original upload
date) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia; transferred to Commons by
User:Michał Sobkowski using
CommonsHelper. Author Original
uploader was BorisTM at
en.wikipedia PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2c/RNR_reaction.png
a DNA polymerase.
[1] These simple DNA polymerases are
shaped roughly like a hand. Both are
from bacteria: on the left is the
enzyme from Escherichia coli, PDB entry
1kln, and on the right is the enzyme
from Thermus aquaticus, PDB entry 1tau.
A cleaved version of the E. coli enzyme
was studied: the missing part, which
you will not find in the PDB file, is
shown with a green outline. The space
between the ''fingers'' and the
''thumb'' is just the right size for a
DNA helix. But surprisingly, DNA
actually fits into the palm when the
enzyme is at work. In these pictures,
the template strand is colored purple
and the new strand is colored green.
The enzyme contains three separate
active sites. The polymerase site, near
the top in these pictures, synthesizes
the new strand by adding nucleotides.
The 3'-5' exonuclease site, near the
center in the E. coli polymerase,
proofreads the new additions. The
polymerase from Thermus aquaticus does
not have this proofreading
ability--perhaps the heat in which it
lives performs the same function. At
the bottom is the 5' exonuclease site
that later removes the small RNA
fragments that are used to prime DNA
replication. These illustrations were
created with RasMol. You can create
similar pictures by clicking on the
accession codes, and then hitting
''View Structure.'' PD
source: http://www.pdb.org/pdb/education
_discussion/molecule_of_the_month/images
/pol_active.gif
bacterium). DNA is surrounded by a
membrane of proteins made by ribosomes.
The first cytoplasm.
This cell may form in either fresh or
salt water, near the sunlit water
surface or near underwater volcanoes on
the ocean floor.
Binary fission evolves. A protein
duplicates DNA within the cell and then
the cell divides into two parts.
The DNA of this cell contains the
template for itself: a copying molecule
(DNA polymerase), and the necessary
mRNA, tRNA, and rRNA molecules needed
to build the cytoplasm. For the first
time, ribosomes and DNA build cell
structure. DNA protected by cytoplasm
is more likely to survive and be
copied. Copies of this cell also have
cytoplasm.
This cell structure forms the basis of
all future cells of every living object
on earth.
Molecules enter and exit the cytoplasm
only because of a difference in
concentration (passive transport) and
represent the beginnings of the first
digestive system.
[1] Deutsch: Bild über den Reitenden
Urzwerg English: Image of Nanoarchaeum
equitans Date 2005-09-10 (original
upload date) Source Originally
from de.wikipedia; description page
is/was here. Author Original
uploader was Eber-Jimmy at
de.wikipedia Permission (Reusing
this file) This image is in the
public domain due to its
age. Licensing According to this
article, ''Es wurde von dem
Mikrobiologen Karl O. Stetter entdeckt.
Bildrechte: Public domain.'' PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/dc/Urzwerg.jpg
[2] Hydrogenobacter thermophilus
(strain TK-6) is an obligately
chemolithoautotrophic, extremely (and
strictly) thermophilic
hydrogen-oxidizing bacterium whose
optimal growth temperature is around 70
to 75°C and was isolated from hot
springs. UNKNOWN
source: http://standardsingenomics.org/i
ndex.php/sigen/article/viewFile/146/534/
4368
circle allows the DNA polymerase to
make continuous copies of the cell
which may increase the speed of cell
growth, duplication and division.
In theory prokaryote cells do not
deteriorate from the effect of aging,
but they do endure mutations (from
photons with ultraviolet frequency, for
example), however, there are many other
ways prokaryotes can be destroyed (loss
of water, physically damaged by
nonliving objects, eaten by other
organisms, and other mechanisms).
Earth; (fats, oils, waxes).
[1] Figure1: Lipid accumulation in
differentiating 3T3-L1 pre-adipocyte
cell line (days in culture) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.emsdiasum.com/microsc
opy/products/sem/wet/images/lipid_accumu
lation.jpg
[2] Lipid Structures under the
microscope. Image by Alison North, The
Rockefeller University. UNKNOWN
source: http://selections.rockefeller.ed
u/cms/images/stories/2010/may/lipid.gif
in the cell membrane allow only certain
molecules to enter the cell.
"Passive transport" is diffusion of a
substance across a membrane without the
cell doing any work. The diffusion is a
result of a concentration and/or
electric gradient. "Facilitated
diffusion" is passive transport aided
by proteins. There are two types of
transport proteins: channel proteins
and carrier proteins. Channel proteins
simply provide corridors that allow a
specific molecule or ion to cross the
membrane. One group of channel proteins
are ion channels, which function as
gated channels, they open or close in
response to a stimulus which may be
chemical or electrical. Carrier protein
change shape so that the substance
binding site moves across the
membrane.
Glycerol is one of the few molecules
known to be transported by facilitated
diffusion in bacteria.
[1] Figure 7.15 from: Campbell, Reece,
et al., ''Biology'', 8th Edition, 2008,
P135. COPYRIGHTED
source: Campbell, Reece, et al.,
"Biology", 8th Edition, 2008, P135.
[2] Figure 7.18 from: Campbell,
Reece, et al., ''Biology'', 8th
Edition, 2008, P137. COPYRIGHTED
source: Campbell, Reece, et al.,
"Biology", 8th Edition, 2008, P137.
The first viruses may be made from
bacteria, or may be bacteria initially.
These cells depend on the DNA
duplicating and protein producing
systems of other cells to reproduce
themselves.
[1] Description Electron
micrograph of Bacteriophages Date
Source
en:Image:Phage.jpg Author
en:User:GrahamColm PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/52/Phage.jpg
evolves in the cytoplasm. Cells can
make ATP (adenosine triphosphate) by
oxidizing glucose to pyruvate.
ATP is the molecule that drives most
cellular work.
[1] Description English: Glycolysis
pathway overview. Date 3
September 2009 Source Own
work Author
WYassineMrabetTalk✉ Inkscape
Logo.svg This vector image was
created with
Inkscape. Permission (Reusing this
file) GFDL license (see below). GFDL
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Glycolysis.svg/
1024px-Glycolysis.svg.png
[2] Figure 9.6 from: Campbell, Reece,
et al, ''Biology'', 8th edition, 2008,
p166. COPYRIGHTED
source: Campbell, Reece, et al,
"Biology", 8th edition, 2008, p166.
make lactic acid.
Fermentation evolves in the cytoplasm.
Cells (all anaerobic) can now make more
ATP and convert pyruvate (the final
product of glycolysis) to lactate (an
ionized form of lactic acid).
[1] IUPAC
name[hide] 2-Hydroxypropanoic
acid Other names[hide] Milk
acid Description de: Struktur
von Milchsäure; en: Structure of
lactic acid Date 12 February
2007 Source Own work Author
NEUROtiker Permission (Reusing
this file) Own work, all rights
released (Public domain) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/59/Lactic-acid-3D-balls.
png
AND http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiped
ia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Lactic-acid-skelet
al.svg/1000px-Lactic-acid-skeletal.svg.p
ng
evolves in the cytoplasm. Cells (all
anaerobic) can now convert pyruvate
(the final product of glycolysis) to
ethanol.
[1] Ethanol Full structural formula,
Ball and Stick Model, and Space-Filling
Model of Ethanol PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/37/Ethanol-2D-flat.png
AND http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiped
ia/commons/b/b0/Ethanol-3D-balls.png
AND http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiped
ia/commons/0/00/Ethanol-3D-vdW.png
[2] Description Fermenting
must. Date 20 March 2007 Source
English Wikipedia
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Mthom
ebrew_must.JPG Author
Agne27 GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d5/Mthomebrew_must.JPG
and ATP are used to transport molecules
into and out of the cytoplasm.
[1] Figure 7.18 from: Campbell, Reece,
et al., ''Biology'', 8th Edition, 2008,
P137. COPYRIGHTED
source: Campbell, Reece, et al.,
"Biology", 8th Edition, 2008, P137.
[2] Figure 7.15 from: Campbell,
Reece, et al., ''Biology'', 8th
Edition, 2008, P135. COPYRIGHTED
source: Campbell, Reece, et al.,
"Biology", 8th Edition, 2008, P135.
off the assembly of any protein.
Operons allow a bacterium to produce
certain proteins only when necessary.
Bacteria before now can only build a
constant stream of all proteins encoded
in their DNA.
[1] Figure 6 from: Jacob, F. & Monod,
J. Genetic regulatory mechanisms in the
synthesis of proteins. J. Mol. Biol. 3,
318–356 (1961)
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_
ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6WK7-4Y39HH7-B&_user
=4422&_coverDate=06%2F30%2F1961&_alid=17
23143833&_rdoc=1&_fmt=high&_orig=search&
_origin=search&_zone=rslt_list_item&_cdi
=6899&_sort=r&_st=13&_docanchor=&view=c&
_ct=5&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlVe
rsion=0&_userid=4422&md5=c2699b72c7c5bee
4e2c31224c6261556&searchtype=a {Jacob_F
rancois_19601228.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6WK7-4Y39HH7-B
&_user=4422&_coverDate=06%2F30%2F1961&_a
lid=1723143833&_rdoc=1&_fmt=high&_orig=s
earch&_origin=search&_zone=rslt_list_ite
m&_cdi=6899&_sort=r&_st=13&_docanchor=&v
iew=c&_ct=5&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&
_urlVersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=c2699b72c
7c5bee4e2c31224c6261556&searchtype=a {J
acob_Francois_19601228.pdf}
[2] Figure 3 from: Jacob, F. & Monod,
J. Genetic regulatory mechanisms in the
synthesis of proteins. J. Mol. Biol. 3,
318–356 (1961)
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_
ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6WK7-4Y39HH7-B&_user
=4422&_coverDate=06%2F30%2F1961&_alid=17
23143833&_rdoc=1&_fmt=high&_orig=search&
_origin=search&_zone=rslt_list_item&_cdi
=6899&_sort=r&_st=13&_docanchor=&view=c&
_ct=5&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlVe
rsion=0&_userid=4422&md5=c2699b72c7c5bee
4e2c31224c6261556&searchtype=a {Jacob_F
rancois_19601228.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6WK7-4Y39HH7-B
&_user=4422&_coverDate=06%2F30%2F1961&_a
lid=1723143833&_rdoc=1&_fmt=high&_orig=s
earch&_origin=search&_zone=rslt_list_ite
m&_cdi=6899&_sort=r&_st=13&_docanchor=&v
iew=c&_ct=5&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&
_urlVersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=c2699b72c
7c5bee4e2c31224c6261556&searchtype=a {J
acob_Francois_19601228.pdf}
maintains the shape of the cell and
protects the cell from external
molecules.
[1] Gram negative cell
wall http://www.arches.uga.edu/~kristen
c/cellwall.html COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.arches.uga.edu/~krist
enc/cellwall.html
[2] Gram positive cell
wall http://www.arches.uga.edu/~kristen
c/cellwall.html COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.arches.uga.edu/~krist
enc/cellwall.html
archaebacteria) evolve. Phylum
Nanoarcheota.
Eubacteria and Archaea are the two
major lines of Prokaryotes.
[1] Deutsch: Bild über den Reitenden
Urzwerg English: Image of Nanoarchaeum
equitans Date 2005-09-10 (original
upload date) Source Originally
from de.wikipedia; description page
is/was here. Author Original
uploader was Eber-Jimmy at
de.wikipedia Permission (Reusing
this file) This image is in the
public domain due to its
age. Licensing According to this
article, ''Es wurde von dem
Mikrobiologen Karl O. Stetter entdeckt.
Bildrechte: Public domain.'' PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/dc/Urzwerg.jpg
[2] Figure 1) Changing views of the
tree and timescale of life. a) An
early-1990s view, with the tree
determined mostly from ribosomal RNA
(rRNA) sequence analysis. This tree
emphasizes vertical (as opposed to
horizontal) evolution and the close
relationship between eukaryotes and the
Archaebacteria. The deep branching
(>3.5 Giga (109) years ago, Gya) of
CYANOBACTERIA (Cy) and other Eubacteria
(purple), the shallow branching
(approx1 Gya) of plants (Pl), animals
(An) and fungi (Fu), and the early
origin of mitochondria (Mi), were based
on interpretations of the geochemical
and fossil record7, 8. Some deeply
branching amitochondriate (Am) species
were believed to have arisen before the
origin of mitochondria44. Major
symbiotic events (black dots) were
introduced to explain the origin of
eukaryotic organelles42, but were not
assumed to be associated with large
transfers of genes to the host nucleus.
They were: Eu, joining of an
archaebacterium host with a eubacterium
(presumably a SPIROCHAETE) to produce
an amitochondriate eukaryote; Mi,
joining of a eukaryote host with an
alpha-proteobacterium (Ap) symbiont,
leading to the origin of mitochondria,
and plastids (Ps), joining of a
eukaryote host with a cyanobacterium
symbiont, forming the origin of
plastids on the plant lineage and
possibly on other lineages. b) The
present view, based on extensive
genomic analysis. Eukaryotes are no
longer considered to be close relatives
of Archaebacteria, but are genomic
hybrids of Archaebacteria and
Eubacteria, owing to the transfer of
large numbers of genes from the
symbiont genome to the nucleus of the
host (indicated by coloured arrows).
Other new features, largely derived
from molecular-clock studies16, 39 (Box
1), include a relatively recent origin
of Cyanobacteria (approx2.6 Gya) and
mitochondria (approx1.8 Gya), an early
origin (approx1.5 Gya) of plants,
animals and fungi, and a close
relationship between animals and fungi.
Coloured dashed lines indicate
controversial aspects of the present
view: the existence of a
premitochondrial symbiotic event and of
living amitochondriate eukaryotes,
ancestors of which never had
mitochondria. c) The times of
divergence of selected model organisms
from humans, based on molecular clocks.
For the prokaryotes (red), because of
different possible origins through
symbiotic events, divergence times
depend on the gene of interest.
source: http://www.nature.com/nrg/journa
l/v3/n11/full/nrg929_fs.html
evolve (Aquifex, Thermotoga) according
to genetic comparison.
[1] A timescale of prokaryote
evolution. Letters indicate nodes
discussed in the text. The last common
ancestor was arbitrarily placed at 4.25
Ga in the tree, although this placement
was not part of the analyses. The grey
rectangle shows the time prior to the
initial rise in oxygen (presumably
anaerobic conditions). Mtb:
Methanothermobacter, Tab:
Thermoanaerobacter, Tsc:
Thermosynechococcus. Battistuzzi et
al. BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004 4:44
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-44 Table
1 Time estimates for selected nodes
in the tree of eubacteria (A-K) and
archaebacteria (L-P). Letters refer to
Fig. 3. Time (Ma)a CIb Node
A 102 57–176 Node
B 2508 2154–2928 Node
C 2800 2452–3223 Node
D 1039 702–1408 Node
E 2558 2310–2969 Node
F 2784 2490–3203 Node
G 2923 2587–3352 Node
H 3054 2697–3490 Node
I 3186 2801–3634 Node
J 3644 3172–4130 Node
K 3977 3434–4464 Node
L 233 118–386 Node
M 3085 2469–3514 Node
N 3566 2876–3948 Node
O 3781 3047–4163 Node
P 4112 3314–4486 a Averages of
the divergence times estimated using
the 2.3 Ga minimum constraint and the
five ingroup root constraints (nodes
A-K) and using the 1.198 ± 0.022 Ga
constraint and the five ingroup root
constraints (nodes L-P). b
Credibility interval (minimum and
maximum averages of the analyses under
the five ingroup root
constraints) Battistuzzi et al. BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004 4:44
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-44 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.biomedcentral.com/con
tent/figures/1471-2148-4-44-3-l.jpg
[2] Aquifex pyrophilus (platinum
shadowed). © K.O. Stetter & Reinhard
Rachel, University of Regensburg.
source: http://biology.kenyon.edu/Microb
ial_Biorealm/bacteria/aquifex/aquifex.ht
m
proteobacteria.
Perhaps pili evolved into flagella,
flagella into pili, or the two systems
are unrelated.
This may be the beginning of motility.
Now for the first time, cells are not
completely controlled by surrounding
matter, but can make limited choices
about their location.
[1] Aquifex pyrophilus (platinum
shadowed). © K.O. Stetter & Reinhard
Rachel, University of Regensburg.
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://biology.kenyon.edu/Microb
ial_Biorealm/bacteria/aquifex/aquifex.ht
m
[1] Description English: Each of
these six hot springs (clockwise from
top left: Uzon4, Uzon7, Uzon8, Uzon9,
Mut11, Mut13) in Kamchatka were found
to contain Korarchaeota. Date 22
August 2005 Source Own
work Author Tommy Auchtung GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/KamchatkaKorHot
Springs.jpg/1280px-KamchatkaKorHotSpring
s.jpg
[2] Figure 2 from: Elkins JG, Podar
M, Graham DE, Makarova KS, Wolf Y,
Randau L, Hedlund BP, Brochier-Armanet
C, Kunin V, Anderson I, Lapidus A,
Goltsman E, Barry K, Koonin EV,
Hugenholtz P, Kyrpides N, Wanner G,
Richardson P, Keller M, Stetter KO.
(July 2008). ''A korarchaeal genome
reveals insights into the evolution of
the Archaea''. Proc Natl Acad Sci 105
(1): 8805–6. Bibcode
2008PNAS..105.8102E.
doi:10.1073/pnas.0801980105. PMC
2430366. PMID
18535141. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/p
mc/articles/PMC2430366/?tool=pmcentrez
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/
articles/PMC2430366/pdf/zpq8102.pdf
{YRE-oR-KE-O-Tu} (methanogens,
halobacteria).
Earliest cell response to light.
[1] A timescale of prokaryote
evolution. Letters indicate nodes
discussed in the text. The last common
ancestor was arbitrarily placed at 4.25
Ga in the tree, although this placement
was not part of the analyses. The grey
rectangle shows the time prior to the
initial rise in oxygen (presumably
anaerobic conditions). Mtb:
Methanothermobacter, Tab:
Thermoanaerobacter, Tsc:
Thermosynechococcus. Battistuzzi et
al. BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004 4:44
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-44 Table
1 Time estimates for selected nodes
in the tree of eubacteria (A-K) and
archaebacteria (L-P). Letters refer to
Fig. 3. Time (Ma)a CIb Node
A 102 57–176 Node
B 2508 2154–2928 Node
C 2800 2452–3223 Node
D 1039 702–1408 Node
E 2558 2310–2969 Node
F 2784 2490–3203 Node
G 2923 2587–3352 Node
H 3054 2697–3490 Node
I 3186 2801–3634 Node
J 3644 3172–4130 Node
K 3977 3434–4464 Node
L 233 118–386 Node
M 3085 2469–3514 Node
N 3566 2876–3948 Node
O 3781 3047–4163 Node
P 4112 3314–4486 a Averages of
the divergence times estimated using
the 2.3 Ga minimum constraint and the
five ingroup root constraints (nodes
A-K) and using the 1.198 ± 0.022 Ga
constraint and the five ingroup root
constraints (nodes L-P). b
Credibility interval (minimum and
maximum averages of the analyses under
the five ingroup root
constraints) Battistuzzi et al. BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004 4:44
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-44 COPYRIGHTED
[1] tree of archaebacteria (archaea)
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.biomedcentral.com/con
tent/figures/1471-2148-4-44-3-l.jpg
[2] A phylogenetic tree of living
things, based on RNA data, showing the
separation of bacteria, archaea, and
eukaryotes. Trees constructed with
other genes are generally similar,
although they may place some
early-branching groups very
differently, thanks to long branch
attraction. The exact relationships of
the three domains are still being
debated, as is the position of the root
of the tree. It has also been suggested
that due to lateral gene transfer, a
tree may not be the best representation
of the genetic relationships of all
organisms. NASA
source: http://www.uni-giessen.de/~gf126
5/GROUPS/KLUG/Stammbaum.html
(Sulfolobus).
[1] A timescale of prokaryote
evolution. Letters indicate nodes
discussed in the text. The last common
ancestor was arbitrarily placed at 4.25
Ga in the tree, although this placement
was not part of the analyses. The grey
rectangle shows the time prior to the
initial rise in oxygen (presumably
anaerobic conditions). Mtb:
Methanothermobacter, Tab:
Thermoanaerobacter, Tsc:
Thermosynechococcus. Battistuzzi et
al. BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004 4:44
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-44 Table
1 Time estimates for selected nodes
in the tree of eubacteria (A-K) and
archaebacteria (L-P). Letters refer to
Fig. 3. Time (Ma)a CIb Node
A 102 57–176 Node
B 2508 2154–2928 Node
C 2800 2452–3223 Node
D 1039 702–1408 Node
E 2558 2310–2969 Node
F 2784 2490–3203 Node
G 2923 2587–3352 Node
H 3054 2697–3490 Node
I 3186 2801–3634 Node
J 3644 3172–4130 Node
K 3977 3434–4464 Node
L 233 118–386 Node
M 3085 2469–3514 Node
N 3566 2876–3948 Node
O 3781 3047–4163 Node
P 4112 3314–4486 a Averages of
the divergence times estimated using
the 2.3 Ga minimum constraint and the
five ingroup root constraints (nodes
A-K) and using the 1.198 ± 0.022 Ga
constraint and the five ingroup root
constraints (nodes L-P). b
Credibility interval (minimum and
maximum averages of the analyses under
the five ingroup root
constraints) Battistuzzi et al. BMC
Evolutionary Biology 2004 4:44
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-44 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.biomedcentral.com/con
tent/figures/1471-2148-4-44-3-l.jpg
[2] tree of archaea ?
source: http://www.uni-giessen.de/~gf126
5/GROUPS/KLUG/Stammbaum.html
that can produce some if not all of
their own food (amino acids,
nucleotides, sugars, phophates, lipids,
and carbohydrates), but require
phosphorus, nitrogen, CO2, water and
light in the form of heat.
Autotrophs produce their own sugars,
lipids, and amino acids using carbon
dioxide as a source of carbon, and
ammonia or nitrates as a source of
nitrogen.
There are only 2 kinds of autotrophy:
Lithotrophy and Photosynthesis.
Organisms that use light for the energy
to synthesize organic compounds are
called photosynthetic autotrophs;
organisms that oxidize such compounds
as hydrogen sulfide (H2S) to obtain
energy are called chemosynthetic
autotrophs, or chemotrophs.
Photosynthetic autotrophs include the
green plants, certain algae, and the
pigmented sulfur bacteria (see
photosynthesis). Chemotrophs include
the iron bacteria, the nitrifying
bacteria, and the nonpigmented sulfur
bacteria (see chemosynthesis).
Heterotrophs are organisms that must
obtain their energy from organic
compounds.
Autotrophs require only simple
inorganic substances to fulfil its
nutritional requirements and for which
gaseous or dissolved carbon dioxide is
the sole source of carbon for the
synthesis of cellular constituents. The
term often includes any microorganism
for which trace amounts of certain
substances, e.g. vitamins, must also be
supplied.
These are lithotrophic cells that
change inorganic (abiotic) molecules
into organic molecules. These cells
are archaebacteria, called methanogens
that perform the reaction: 4H2 + CO2
-> CH4 + 2H2O. They convert CO2 into
Methane. Methane is better than CO2
for trapping heat, and could have
contributed to heating the earth.
[1] Description Methanopyrus
kandleri Date July
2006 Source ms:Imej:Arkea.jpg Auth
or ms:User:PM Poon GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/aa/Arkea.jpg
(anoxygenic photosynthesis).
Bacteria use light to convert Hydrogen
and Carbon Dioxide into hydrocarbons.
This is anoxygenic photosynthesis which
not liberate oxygen.
[1] Chemiosmosis as it operates in
photophosphorylation within a
chloroplast. Images from Purves et al.,
Life: The Science of Biology, 4th
Edition, by Sinauer Associates
(www.sinauer.com) and WH Freeman
(www.whfreeman.com) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/facu
lty/farabee/biobk/0817_1.gif
[2] Chemiosmosis as it operates in
photophosphorylation within a
chloroplast. Images from Purves et al.,
Life: The Science of Biology, 4th
Edition, by Sinauer Associates
(www.sinauer.com) and WH Freeman
(www.whfreeman.com) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/facu
lty/farabee/biobk/0817_2.gif
evolves. Cells emit free Oxygen.
This is the
main system responsible for producing
the Oxygen now in the air of earth.
[1] Chemiosmosis as it operates in
photophosphorylation within a
chloroplast. Images from Purves et al.,
Life: The Science of Biology, 4th
Edition, by Sinauer Associates
(www.sinauer.com) and WH Freeman
(www.whfreeman.com) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/facu
lty/farabee/biobk/0817_1.gif
[2] Chemiosmosis as it operates in
photophosphorylation within a
chloroplast. Images from Purves et al.,
Life: The Science of Biology, 4th
Edition, by Sinauer Associates
(www.sinauer.com) and WH Freeman
(www.whfreeman.com) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/facu
lty/farabee/biobk/0817_2.gif
[1] Geologic Time Scale 2009 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.geosociety.org/scienc
e/timescale/timescl.pdf
aerobic (or "oxygenic") cell. These
cells use oxygen to convert glucose
into carbon dioxide, water, and ATP.
Aerobic cellular respiration evolves as
an alternative to fermentaton, by using
oxygen to break down the products of
glycolysis, pyruvic acid, into carbon
dioxide and water, producing up to 38
ATP molecules in the process.
[1] Rickettsia prowazekii COPYRIGHTED
FAIR USE
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Rickettsia_prowazekii.jpg
[2] Rickettsia rickettsii in
endothelial cells of a blood vessel
from a patient with fatal RMSF (Rocky
Mounted Spotted Fever) CDC PD
source: http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dvrd/r
msf/Laboratory.htm
ratio of carbon-13 to carbon-12 in
grains of ancient apetite {aPeTIT}
(calcium phosphate) minerals.
Life uses the lighter Carbon-12 isotope
and so the ratio of carbon-12 to
carbon-13 is different from a nonliving
source (calcium carbonate or
limestone).
[1] Figure 1 from: Mojzsis, S. J. et
al. ''Evidence for Life on Earth Before
3,800 Million Years Ago.'' Nature
384.6604 (1996):
55–59. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v384/n6604/abs/384055a0.html COP
YRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v384/n6604/pdf/384055a0.pdf
[2] Figure 1 from: Mojzsis, S. J. et
al. ''Evidence for Life on Earth Before
3,800 Million Years Ago.'' Nature
384.6604 (1996):
55–59. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v384/n6604/abs/384055a0.html COP
YRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v384/n6604/pdf/384055a0.pdf
Formation begins.
Banded Iron Formation
is sedimentary rock that spans from 3.8
to 1.8 billion years ago, made of
iron-rich silicates (like silicon
dioxide SiO2) with alternating layers
of black colored ferrous (reduced) iron
and red colored ferric (oxidized) iron
and represents a seasonal cycle where
the quantity of free oxygen in the
ocean rises and falls, possibly linked
to photosynthetic organisms.
The atmosphere of earth still has only
small amounts of oxygen at this time.
[1] image of BIF from Akilia from
Nature COPYRIGHTED
source: nature 11/7/96
[2] portion taken
from: Description English: This
image shows a 2.1 billion years old
rock containing black-banded ironstone,
which has a weight of about 8.5 tons.
The approximately two meter high, three
meter wide, and one meter thick block
of stone was found in North America and
belongs to the National Museum of
Mineralogy and Geology in Dresden,
Germany. The rock is located at
+51°2'34.84''
+13°45'26.67''. Deutsch: Dieses Bild
zeigt einen etwa 8,5 Tonnen schweren
und 2,1 Milliarden Jahre alten Block
mit Bändereisenerzen. Der etwa zwei
Meter hohe, drei Meter breite und einen
Meter tiefe Gesteinsblock wurde in
Nordamerika gefunden und gehört dem
Staatlichen Museum für Mineralogie und
Geologie Dresden. Der Block befindet
sich bei den Koordinaten +51°2'34.84''
+13°45'26.67''. Camera
data Camera Nikon D70 Lens Tamron
SP AF 90mm/2.8 Di Macro 1:1 Focal
length 90 mm Aperture f/2.8 Exposure
time 1/250 s Sensivity ISO 200 Please
help translating the description into
more languages. Thanks a lot! If
you want a license with the conditions
of your choice, please email me to
negotiate terms. best new
image Date 26 August
2005 Source Own
work Author André Karwath aka
Aka CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Black-band_iron
stone_%28aka%29.jpg/1280px-Black-band_ir
onstone_%28aka%29.jpg
Archaea. Isoprene compounds.
[1] English: Isopentenyl pyrophosphate;
IPP; isopentenyl diphosphate;
isopentenyl-ppi Deutsch:
Isopentenylpyrophosphat;
Isopentenyldiphosphat Date 24.
November Source Own
work Author Yikrazuul PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Isopentenyl_pyr
ophosphate.svg/1000px-Isopentenyl_pyroph
osphate.svg.png
oxygen photosynthesis, quantity of
Uranium isotope.
[1] Fig. 1. (c) Close-up of the region
near the Stacey and Kramers growth
curve showing the intersection of the
errorchron defined by the metasediment
samples and an isochron defined by all
possible Pb compositions at 2800 Ma of
systems derived from the Stacey and
Kramers growth curve at 3700 Ma. This
intersection is the model initial
composition for the samples at 2800 Ma.
The position above the growth curve
indicates that the samples evolved with
high μ (238U/204Pb) values of 22
during the time span from 3700 to 2800
Ma. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://ars.sciencedirect.com/con
tent/image/1-s2.0-S0012821X03006095-gr1.
gif
[2] Fig. 1. (a) 207Pb/204Pb versus
206Pb/204Pb for eight samples of >3700
Ma pelagic sediment from Isua, West
Greenland, shown with open diamonds.
Analytical uncertainty is less than the
size of the symbols. The Stacey and
Kramers growth curve for average
crustal Pb [24] is shown for
comparison. The age of the errorchron
which has a MSWD=52 is calculated using
Isoplot [23]. The high MSWD value
indicates that the Pb isotopic
composition of the sample suite was not
perfectly homogeneous at 2800 Ma. (b)
Pb isotopic data for the whole rock
samples shown in panel a and their HCl
leachates and leach residues in the
range 206Pb/204Pb=0–75 and
207Pb/204Pb=10–25 (filled circles).
The full dataset is shown in the inset.
In open circles are data for banded
iron formation and metabasalt samples
from the same supracrustal segment as
the carbon-rich metasediments. These
samples plot along a parallel reference
isochron, but originate at the Stacey
and Kramers growth curve, which
indicates that they evolved with
‘normal’ μ (238U/204Pb) values
during the time span from 3700 to 2800
Ma. (c) Close-up of the region near the
Stacey and Kramers growth curve showing
the intersection of the errorchron
defined by the metasediment samples and
an isochron defined by all possible Pb
compositions at 2800 Ma of systems
derived from the Stacey and Kramers
growth curve at 3700 Ma. This
intersection is the model initial
composition for the samples at 2800 Ma.
The position above the growth curve
indicates that the samples evolved with
high μ (238U/204Pb) values of 22
during the time span from 3700 to 2800
Ma. (d) 206Pb/204Pb versus 208Pb/204Pb
for the sample suite. The samples show
some scatter about a regression line,
which passes to the right of the Stacey
and Kramers growth curve. This
indicates that the metasediments
evolved with low Th/U ratios. At the
initial 206Pb/204Pb composition derived
from panel b, the 208Pb/204Pb value at
the regression line is 31, which is
less radiogenic than the Stacey and
Kramers model value at 3700 Ma. This
indicates that the samples evolved with
virtually no Th during the early
Archaean. (e) 206Pb/204Pb versus
208Pb/204Pb for whole rock samples, HCl
leachates and residues. The residues
are highlighted in filled diamonds, and
are characterized by low thorogenic Pb
and a shallow array indicative of a low
Th/U ratio, while the leachates shown
in open circles are extremely
radiogenic, with high Th/U evolutions.
Whole rock samples are shown with
crosses. The model initial Pb
composition at 2769 Ma is shown as the
open square at the apex of the
fan-shaped data array to the right of
the Stacey and Kramers growth
curve. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://ars.sciencedirect.com/con
tent/image/1-s2.0-S0012821X03006095-gr1.
gif
evolves in prokaryotes. Photosynthetic
bacteria grow in filaments.
Multicellularity appears to have
evolved independently multiple times in
the history of life on Earth.
[1] Microgram of filamentous bacteria
from flexible setae. (Courtesy
Zoosystema © 2005) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://bioweb.uwlax.edu/bio203/s
2009/decker_rour/images/yeti-crab-filame
ntous-bacteria.JPG
[2] Filamentous Bacteria Microthrix
Parvicella UNKNOWN
source: http://ebsbiowizard.com/wp-conte
nt/gallery/filamentous-bacteria-microthr
ix-parvicella/filamentous-bacteria-micro
thrix-parvicella.jpg
yet found. Stromatolites made by
photosynthetic bacteria are found in
both Warrawoona, Western Australia, and
Fig Tree Group, South Africa.
Tree Group, South Africa
[1] image on left is from swaziland
source: nature feb 6
[2]
source: 1986
similar to cyanobacteria, found in the
3,500 million year old Apex chert of
the Warrawoona Group, northwestern
Western Australia and in the Onverwacht
Group in Barberton Mountain Land, South
Africa.
Two and a half billion years will pass
before the first animal evolves.
Australia and Onverwacht Group,
Barberton Mountain Land, South
Africa
[1] Figure 1 Optical photomicrographs
showing carbonaceous (kerogenous)
filamentous microbial fossils in
petrographic thin sections of
Precambrian cherts. Scale in a
represents images in a and c-i; scale
in b represents image in b. All parts
show photomontages, which is
necessitated by the three-dimensional
preservation of the cylindrical sinuous
permineralized microbes. Squares in
each part indicate the areas for which
chemical data are presented in Figs 2
and 3. a, An unnamed cylindrical
prokaryotic filament, probably the
degraded cellular trichome or tubular
sheath of an oscillatoriacean
cyanobacterium, from the 770-Myr
Skillogalee Dolomite of South
Australia12. b, Gunflintia grandis, a
cellular probably oscillatoriacean
trichome, from the 2,100-Myr Gunflint
Formation of Ontario, Canada13. c, d,
Unnamed highly carbonized filamentous
prokaryotes from the 3,375-Myr Kromberg
Formation of South Africa14: the poorly
preserved cylindrical trichome of a
noncyanobacterial or oscillatoriacean
prokaryote (c); the disrupted,
originally cellular trichomic remnants
possibly of an Oscillatoria- or
Lyngbya-like cyanobacterium (d). e-i,
Cellular microbial filaments from the
3,465-Myr Apex chert of northwestern
Western Australia: Primaevifilum
amoenum4,5, from the collections of The
Natural History Museum (TNHM), London,
specimen V.63164[6] (e); P. amoenum4
(f); the holotype of P.
delicatulum4,5,15, TNHM V.63165[2] (g);
P. conicoterminatum5, TNHM V63164[9]
(h); the holotype of Eoleptonema apex5,
TNHM V.63729[1] (i).
source: Nature416
[2] Fig. 3 Filamentous microfossils:
a, cylindrical microfossil from
Hooggenoeg sample; b, threadlike and
tubular filaments extending between
laminae, Kromberg sample; c,d,e,
tubular filamnets oriented subparallel
to bedding, Kromberg sample; f,
threadlike filament flattened parallel
to bedding, Kromberg sample.
source: 73 - 76 (07 Mar 2002) Letters
to Nature
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v41
6/n6876/fig_tab/416073a_F1.html
eukaryotes happened here at 3.5 bybn.
Possible eukaryote (acritarch) fossils
have been found in 3.2 billion year old
rocks.
bacteria.
[1] get larger image
source: file:///root/web/fossils_biomark
er_science_v67_i22_nov_15_2003.html#bib9
9
photosynthetic bacteria found in
Pilbara Craton, Australia.
[1] a-c, 'Encrusting/domical
laminites'; d-f, 'small crested/conical
laminites'; g-i, 'cuspate swales'; j-l,
'large complex cones' (dashed lines in
k trace lamina shape and show outlines
of intraclast conglomerate piled
against the cone at two levels). m-o,
'Egg-carton laminites'; p, q, 'wavy
laminites'; r-t, 'iron-rich laminites'
(t is a cut slab). The scale card in b,
h and i is 18 cm. The scale card
increments in c, e, k, l, n and s are 1
cm. The scale bar in o is about 1 cm.
The scale bars in the remaining
pictures are about 5 cm. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v441/n7094/fig_tab/nature04764_F1.h
tml
photosynthetic, probably anoxygenic
(anaerobic), bacteria that lived in
mats in the ocean date to this time.
[1] a, Dark carbonaceous laminations
draping an underlying coarse detrital
carbonaceous grain (a), showing
internal anastomosing and draping
character (b) and, at the top (c)
draping irregularities in underlying
carbonaceous laminations. b, Dark
carbonaceous laminations that have been
eroded and rolled up by currents. c,
Bundled filaments in the rolled
laminations in b [tp: they should
have clearly indicated that they are
saying that these filaments are
bacteria].
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v431/n7008/fig_tab/nature02888_F4.h
tml
{KoKOED} (spherical) bacteria from the
Kromberg Formation, Swaziland System,
South Africa.
South Africa
[1] Fig. 3. from: Hans D. Pflug,
Earliest organic evolution. Essay to
the memory of Bartholomew Nagy,
Precambrian Research, Volume 106,
Issues 1–2, 1 February 2001, Pages
79-91, ISSN 0301-9268,
10.1016/S0301-9268(00)00126-1. (http://
www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pi
i/S0301926800001261 (a,b) Organic
microstructures from Kromberg
Formation, Swaziland System, South
Africa (ca 3.4 Ga). TEM-micrographs of
demineralized specimens. (c) Portion of
organic microstructure from Bulawaya
stromatolite (see Fig. 2). (d) Portion
of the mucilagenous sheath of recent
Anabaena sp., cyanobacteria (Fig. d
after Leak, 1967). For magnification of
Fig. c see scale of Fig.
a. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence/article/pii/S0301926800001261
[2] Fig. 3. from: Hans D. Pflug,
Earliest organic evolution. Essay to
the memory of Bartholomew Nagy,
Precambrian Research, Volume 106,
Issues 1–2, 1 February 2001, Pages
79-91, ISSN 0301-9268,
10.1016/S0301-9268(00)00126-1. (http://
www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pi
i/S0301926800001261 (a,b) Organic
microstructures from Kromberg
Formation, Swaziland System, South
Africa (ca 3.4 Ga). TEM-micrographs of
demineralized specimens. (c) Portion of
organic microstructure from Bulawaya
stromatolite (see Fig. 2). (d) Portion
of the mucilagenous sheath of recent
Anabaena sp., cyanobacteria (Fig. d
after Leak, 1967). For magnification of
Fig. c see scale of Fig.
a. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=MiamiCaptionURL&_method=retriev
e&_udi=B6VBP-42G6M5T-7&_image=fig9&_ba=9
&_user=4422&_coverDate=02%2F01%2F2001&_f
mt=full&_orig=browse&_cdi=5932&view=c&_a
cct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&
_userid=4422&md5=27a45a0804747bb4b74eaac
305df2905
[1] Evolutionary relationships of model
organisms and bacteria that show
unusual reproductive strategies. This
phylogenetic tree (a) illustrates the
diversity of organisms that use the
alternative reproductive strategies
shown in (b). Bold type indicates
complete or ongoing genome projects.
Intracellular offspring are produced by
several low-GC Gram-positive bacteria
such as Metabacterium polyspora,
Epulopiscium spp. and the segmented
filamentous bacteria (SFB). Budding and
multiple fission are found in the
proteobacterial genera Hyphomonas and
Bdellovibrio, respectively. In the case
of the Cyanobacteria, Stanieria
produces baeocytes and Chamaesiphon
produces offspring by budding.
Actinoplanes produce dispersible
offspring by multiple fission of
filaments within the sporangium.
source: http://www.nature.com/nrmicro/jo
urnal/v3/n3/full/nrmicro1096_fs.html
(Nature Reviews Microbiology 3
[2] Electron micrograph of a Pirellula
bacterium from giant tiger prawn tissue
(Penaeus monodon). Notice the large
crateriform structures (C) on the cell
surface and flagella. From Fuerst et
al.
source: 214-224 (2005);
doi:10.1038/nrmicro1096)
Thermophilic prokaryote fossils found
in 3235 million year old deep-sea
volcanogenic massive sulphide deposits
from the Pilbara Craton of Australia
may be oldest Archaea fossils.
The Pilbara Craton of Australia
contains one of the most complete
sections of well preserved Archaean
volcano-sedimentary rocks and is the
site of several previous fossil
discoveries. This sediment was
deposited in a deep marine setting,
with water depths probably exceeding 1
km.
Craton of Australia
[1] Photomicrographs of filaments from
the Sulphur Springs VMS deposit. Scale
bar, 10 µm. a-f, Straight, sinuous and
curved morphologies, some densely
intertwined. g, Filaments parallel to
the concentric layering. h, Filaments
oriented sub-perpendicular to
banding. Figure 3 from: Rasmussen,
Birger. ''Filamentous Microfossils in a
3,235-million-year-old Volcanogenic
Massive Sulphide Deposit.'' Nature
405.6787 (2000):
676–679. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v405/n6787/abs/405676a0.html C
OPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v405/n6787/abs/405676a0.html
[2] Photomicrographs of filaments from
the Sulphur Springs VMS deposit. Scale
bar, 10 µm. a-f, Straight, sinuous and
curved morphologies, some densely
intertwined. g, Filaments parallel to
the concentric layering. h, Filaments
oriented sub-perpendicular to
banding. Figure 3 from: Rasmussen,
Birger. ''Filamentous Microfossils in a
3,235-million-year-old Volcanogenic
Massive Sulphide Deposit.'' Nature
405.6787 (2000):
676–679. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v405/n6787/abs/405676a0.html C
OPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v405/n6787/abs/405676a0.html
(unicellular microfossils with
uncertain affinity). These acritarchs
are also the earliest possible
eukaryote fossils.
[1] Figure from: Javaux, Emmanuelle
J., Craig P. Marshall, and Andrey
Bekker. “Organic-walled microfossils
in 3.2-billion-year-old shallow-marine
siliciclastic deposits.” Nature
463.7283 (2010):
934-938. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v463/n7283/full/nature08793.html
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v463/n7283/full/nature08793.html
[2] Figure from: Javaux, Emmanuelle
J., Andrew H. Knoll, and Malcolm R.
Walter. “Morphological and ecological
complexity in early eukaryotic
ecosystems.” Nature 412.6842 (2001):
66-69. http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v412/n6842/abs/412066a0.html Figur
e 1 Protistan microfossils from the
Roper Group. a, c, Tappania plana,
showing asymmetrically distributed
processes and bulbous protrusions
(arrow in a). b, detail of a, showing
dichotomously branching process. d,
Valeria lophostriata. e, Dictyosphaera
sp. f, Satka favosa. The scale bar in a
is 35 µm for a and c; 10 µm for b;
100 µm for d; 15 µm for e; and 40 µm
for f.
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v412/n6842/abs/412066a0.html
(FiRmiKYUTEZ) evolve (Gram positive
bacteria: cause of botulism, tetanus,
anthrax).
[1] Listeria monocytogenes is a
Gram-positive bacterium, in the
division Firmicutes, named for Joseph
Lister. It is motile by means of
flagella. Some studies suggest that 1
to 10% of humans may carry L.
monocytogenes in their
intestines. Researchers have found L.
monocytogenes in at least 37 mammalian
species, both domesticated and feral,
as well as in at least 17 species of
birds and possibly in some species of
fish and shellfish. Laboratories can
isolate L. monocytogenes from soil,
silage, and other environmental
sources. L. monocytogenes is quite
hardy and resists the deleterious
effects of freezing, drying, and heat
remarkably well for a bacterium that
does not form spores. Most L.
monocytogenes are pathogenic to some
degree.
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Listeria.jpg
[2] These are bacteria (about 0.3 µm
in diameter) that do not have outer
walls, only cytoplasmic membranes.
However, they do have cytoskeletal
elements that give them a distinct
non-spherical shape. They look like
schmoos that are pulled along by their
heads. How they are able to glide is a
mystery.
source: http://webmac.rowland.org/labs/b
acteria/projects_glide.html
form endospores evolve in firmicutes.
An endospore is a tough reduced dry
form of a bacterium triggered by a lack
of nutrients that protects the
bacterium, and allows it to be revived
after long periods of time.
[1] Spore forming inside a bacterium.
Stahly, MicrobeLibrary COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.microbe.org/microbes/
spores.asp
[2] Listeria monocytogenes is a
Gram-positive bacterium, in the
division Firmicutes, named for Joseph
Lister. It is motile by means of
flagella. Some studies suggest that 1
to 10% of humans may carry L.
monocytogenes in their
intestines. Researchers have found L.
monocytogenes in at least 37 mammalian
species, both domesticated and feral,
as well as in at least 17 species of
birds and possibly in some species of
fish and shellfish. Laboratories can
isolate L. monocytogenes from soil,
silage, and other environmental
sources. L. monocytogenes is quite
hardy and resists the deleterious
effects of freezing, drying, and heat
remarkably well for a bacterium that
does not form spores. Most L.
monocytogenes are pathogenic to some
degree.
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Listeria.jpg
(Rickettsia {ancestor of all
mitochondria}, gonorrhoea, Salmonella,
E coli) evolve according to genetic
comparison.
[1] Figure 1. Transmission electron
micrograph of the ELB agent in XTC-2
cells. The rickettsia are free in the
cytoplasm and surrounded by an electron
transparent halo. Original
magnification X 30,000. CDC PD
source: www.cdc.gov/ncidod/
eid/vol7no1/raoultG1.htm
[2] Caulobacter crescentus. From
http://sunflower.bio.indiana.edu/~ybrun/
L305.html COPYRIGHTED EDU was in wiki
but appears to be removed
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/4/42/Caulobacter.jpg
evolve in Escherichia Coli {esRriKEo
KOlE} bacteria. Conjugation is the
exchange of DNA (plasmids) by a donor
{male} bacterium through a pilus to a
recipient {female} bacterium.
In addition to pili and conjugation,
proteins that can cut DNA and other
proteins that can connect two strands
of DNA together evolve.
[1] the fertility factor or F factor is
a very large (94,500 bp) circular dsDNA
plasmid; it is generally independent of
the host chromosome. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.mun.ca/biochem/course
s/3107/images/Fplasmidmap.gif
[2] conjugation (via pilus)
COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://www.bio.miami.edu/dana/16
0/conjugation.jpg
{PlaNK-TO-mI-SETS} (also known as
Planctobacteria) evolve.
Planctomycetes are a possible ancestor
of all eukaryotes because the circle of
DNA can sometimes be enclosed in a
double membrane.
Planctomycetes form a small phylum with
only 4 Genera, which require oxygen for
growth (obligately aerobic), and are
found in fresh and salt water.
Planctomycetes reproduce by budding.
They have holdfast (stalk) at the
nonreproductive end that helps them to
attach to each other during budding.
[1] Electron micrographs of cells of
new Gemmata-like and Isosphaera-like
isolates. (A) Negatively stained cell
of the Gemmata-like strain JW11-2f5
showing crateriform structures
(arrowhead) and coccoid cell
morphology. Bar marker, 200 nm. (B)
Negatively stained budding cell of
Isosphaera-like strain CJuql1 showing
uniform crateriform structures
(arrowhead) on the mother cell and
coccoid cell morphology. Bar marker,
200 nm. (C) Thin section of
Gemmata-like cryosubstituted cell of
strain JW3-8s0 showing the
double-membrane-bounded nuclear body
(NB) and nucleoid (N) enclosed within
it. Bar marker, 200 nm. (D) Thin
section of Isosphaera-like strain C2-3
possessing a fibrillar nucleoid (N)
within a cytoplasmic compartment
bounded by a single membrane (M) only.
Bar marker, 200 nm. Appl Environ
Microbiol. 2002 January; 68(1):
417-422. doi:
10.1128/AEM.68.1.417-422.2002.
source: http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/art
iclerender.fcgi?tool=pubmed&pubmedid=117
72655
[2] Evolutionary distance tree derived
from comparative analysis of 16S rDNAs
from freshwater and soil isolates and
reference strains of the order
Planctomycetales. Database accession
numbers are shown in parentheses after
species, strain, or clone names.
Bootstrap values of greater than 70%
from 100 bootstrap resamplings from the
distance analysis are presented at
nodes. Thermotoga maritima was used as
an outgroup. Isolates from this study
and representative named species of the
planctomycetes are indicated in bold.
The scale bar represents 0.1 nucleotide
substitution per nucleotide
position. Appl Environ Microbiol.
2002 January; 68(1): 417-422. doi:
10.1128/AEM.68.1.417-422.2002.
source: http://florey.biosci.uq.edu.au/m
ypa/images/fuerst2.gif
{aKTinO-BaK-TER-Eu} (high G+C {Guanine
and Cytosine count}, Gram positive,
source of streptomycin) evolve.
The Actinobacteria or Actinomycetes are
a group of Gram-positive bacteria. Most
are found in the soil.
[1] Aerial mycelium and spore of
Streptomyces coelicolor. The mycelium
and the oval spores are about 1µm
wide, typical for bacteria and much
smaller than fungal hyphae and spores.
(Scanning electron micrograph, Mark
Buttner, Kim Findlay, John Innes
Centre). COPYRIGHT UK
source: http://www.sanger.ac.uk/Projects
/S_coelicolor/micro_image4.shtml
[2] Frankia is a genus of
nitrogen-fixing soil bacteria, which
possesses a set of features that are
unique amongst symbiotic
nitrogen-fixing microorganisms,
including rhizobia, making it an
attractive taxon to study. These
heterotrophic Gram-positive bacteria
which are able to induce symbiotic
nitrogen-fixing root nodules
(actinorhizas) in a wide range of
dicotyledonous species (actinorhizal
plants), have also the capacity to fix
atmospheric nitrogen in culture and
under aerobic conditions.
source: http://www.ibmc.up.pt/webpagesgr
upos/cam/Frankia.htm
(SPIrOKETEZ) evolves (Syphilis, Lyme
disease).
Spirochaetes includes leptospirosis
(leptospira), Lyme disease (Borrelia
burgdorferi), and Syphilis (Treponema
pallidum).
[1] Syphilis is a complex, sexually
transmitted disease (STD) with a highly
variable clinical course. The disease
is caused by the bacterium, Treponema
pallidum. In the United States, 32,871
cases of syphilis, including 432 cases
of congenital syphilis, were detected
by public health officials in 2002.
Eight of the ten states with the
highest rates of syphilis are located
in the southern region of the United
States.
source: http://www.cdc.gov/nchstp/od/tus
kegee/syphilis.htm
[2] unknown
source: http://uhavax.hartford.edu/bugl/
images/Treponema%20pallidum.jpg
{BaKTRrOEDiTEZ} evolve.
[1] Bacteroides fragilis . From the
Zdravotni University
source: http://biology.kenyon.edu/Microb
ial_Biorealm/bacteria/bacteroidete_chlor
ob_group/bacteroides/bacteroides.htm
[2] Cross section of a Bacteroides
showing an outer membrane, a
peptidoglycan layer, and a cytoplasmic
membrane. From New-asthma
source: http://phil.cdc.gov/phil/details
.asp
{Klo-mi-DE-I or Klo-mi-DE-E} evolve.
Chlamydiae includes (clamydia, trachoma
{Chlamydia trachomatis}, a form of
pneumonia {Chlamydophila pneumoniae},
psittacosis {Chlamydophila psittaci}.
The Chlamydiae are a group of bacteria,
all of which are intracellular
parasites of eukaryotic cells.
[1] Chlamydia trachomatis wiki, is
copyrighted
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chl
amydia_trachomatis
[2] wiki, public domain
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Chlamydophila_pneumoniae.jpg
sulphur bacteria) evolve.
[1] Description Deutsch: Grüne
Schwefelbakterien (Chlorobiaceae) im
unteren Bereich einer
Winogradsky-Säule Date
20.03.2007 (20 March 2007
(original upload date)) Source
Transferred from de.wikipedia;
transfer was stated to be made by
User:Jacopo Werther. (Original text :
Mikrobiologie Praktikum Universität
Kassel März 2007) Author
kOchstudiO. Original uploader was
KOchstudiO at
de.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) Released into the public
domain (by the author). (Original text
: uneingeschränkte Nutzung) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e7/Green_d_winogradsky.j
pg
(VeR-rUKO-mI-KrO-BEo) evolve.
[1] Figure 1 Transmission electron
micrographs of high-pressure frozen and
cryosubstituted Verrucomicrobium
spinosum. A. Cell prepared by
high-pressure freezing and
cryosubstitution showing prostheca
(PT), paryphoplasm (P), and an
intracytoplasmic membrane (ICM)
enclosing a pirellulosome region
containing a condensed fibrillar
nucleoid (N). Inset: enlarged view of
area of cell outlined in the white box
showing cytoplasmic membrane (CM),
paryphoplasm and ICM. B.
freeze-fracture replica of cell showing
cross-fractured paryphoplasm (P) and
fracture faces of ICM and CM. Bar –
500 nm Lee et al. BMC Microbiology
2009 9:5
doi:10.1186/1471-2180-9-5 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.biomedcentral.com/con
tent/figures/1471-2180-9-5-1-l.jpg
[2] Figure 2 Transmission electron
micrograph of high-pressure frozen and
cryosubstituted Verrucomicrobium
spinosum. Cell prepared by
high-pressure freezing and
cryosubstitution showing prostheca
(PT), ribosome-free paryphoplasm (P),
and an intracytoplasmic membrane (ICM)
enclosing a pirellulosome region
containing a condensed fibrillar
nucleoid (N). Membrane-bounded
vesicle-like compartments within some
prosthecae extensions are also present
(see arrowheads). Bar – 1 μm Lee
et al. BMC Microbiology 2009 9:5
doi:10.1186/1471-2180-9-5 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.biomedcentral.com/con
tent/figures/1471-2180-9-5-2-l.jpg
packed in between nucleotides in each
chromosome evolve.
eat other cells.
Endocytosis is a process of cellular
ingestion by which the plasma membrane
folds inward to bring substances into
the cell.
Exocytosis is a process of cellular
secretion or excretion in which
substances contained in vesicles are
discharged from the cell by fusion of
the vesicle membrane with the outer
cell membrane.
[1] Endocytosis and Exocytosis: For
example, this electron micrograph is
showing the process of exocytosis . The
process begins by fusion of the
membranes at the peripheral pole of the
granule. Then an opening is created
which widens to look like an omicron
figure. This opening allows the
granular material to be released. The
membrane is now part of the plasma
membrane and any proteins carried with
it can be incorporated into the plasma
membrane. Note that there is no coating
on the membrane. This figure was taken
from Alberts et al, Molecular Biology
of the Cell, Garland Publishing Third
Edition, 1994 In contrast, this
micrograph shows a figure which looks
something like an omicron, however,
this view is showing receptor mediated
endocytosis of virus particles. In both
cases, the membrane is coated with
clathrin and these represent classical
receptor mediated endocytosis profiles.
Most ligands cannot be visualized by
themselves, like a virus particle.
Therefore, the cytochemist must attach
label to the ligand. Alternatively, the
cytochemist could immunocytochemically
detect the receptor with antibodies
that recognize the extracellular
domain. This figure was taken from
Endocytosis, Edited by Ira Pastan and
Mark C. Willingham, Plenum Press, N.Y.,
1985 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.cytochemistry.net/cel
l-biology/end7.jpg
[2] Pinocytosis In the process of
pinocytosis the plasma membrane froms
an invagination. What ever substance
is found within the area of
invagination is brought into the
cell. In general this material will
be dissolved in water and thus this
process is also refered to as
''cellular drinking'' to indicate that
liquids and material dissolved in
liquids are ingested by the
cell. This is opposed to the
ingestion of large particulate material
like bacteria or other cells or cell
debris.
source: http://academic.brooklyn.cuny.ed
u/biology/bio4fv/page/endocytb.htm
2 haploid cells fuse) evolves.
with a nucleus. The first protist. The
nucleus may develop from the infolding
of plasma membrane.
All cells have several basic features
in common: They are all bounded by a
selective barrier, called the plasma
membrane. Enclosed by the membrane is a
semifluid, jellylike substance called
cytosol, in which organelles and other
components are found. All cells contain
chromosomes, which carry genes in the
form of DNA. And all cells have
ribosomes, tiny bodies that make
proteins according to instructions from
the genes.
There are some difference between
prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells:
In
prokaryotic cells the DNA is
concentrated in a region that is not
membrane enclosed called the "nucleoid"
while in eukaryotic cells most of the
DNA is contained in a nucleus that is
bounded by a double membrane.
Eukaryotic cells are generally much
larger than prokaryotic cells. Typical
bacteria are between 1-5 um in
diameter, while eukaryotic cells are
typically 10-100 um in diameter. Unlike
prokaryotic cells, eukaryotic cells
have a cytoskeleton. The cytoskeleton
enables eukaryotic cells to change
their shape and to surround and engulf
other cells. Eukaryotic cells also have
internal structures that prokaryotic
cells lack such as mitochondria and
plastids. DNA in prokaryotic cells is
usually in the form of a single cicular
chromosome, while DNA in the nucleus of
eukaryotes contains linear
chromosomes.
Like prokaryotes, this cell is probably
haploid (a single unique DNA), most
eukaryotes are diploid (having two sets
of DNA).
All protists, fungi, animals and plant
cells descend from this common
eukaryotic cell.
[1] Campbell, Reece, et al,
''Biology'', 2008, p517. COPYRIGHTED
source: Campbell, Reece, et al,
"Biology", 2008, p517.
[2]
http://www.regx.de/m_organisms.php#planc
to
source: http://www.regx.de/m_organisms.p
hp#plancto
of eukaryotes (sterane molecules).
Steranes are formed from sterols,
molecules made by mitochondria.
[1] Jochen J. Brocks, Graham A. Logan,
Roger Buick, Roger E. Summons,
''Archean Molecular Fossils and the
Early Rise of Eukaryotes'', Science,
Vol 285, Issue 5430, 13 August 1999,
p1033-1036.
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/285/
5430/1033.short
and http://www.jstor.org/stable/2898534
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/285/5430/1033.short
and http://www.jstor.org/stable/2898534
microorganisms from a stromatolite in
Zimbabwe thought to be cyanobacteria
forming endospores.
[1] Fig. 2. Organic microstructure from
the Bulawaya stromatolite, Zimbabwe (ca
2.7 Ga). (a) TEM-micrograph from
demineralized rock section. (b) Laser
mass spectrum from individual specimen
of the same population (negative ions).
Field of measurement ca 1 small mu,
Greekm diameter. Attribution of
signals: 12: C−, 13: CH−, 14:
CH−2, 16: O−, 17: OH−, 19: F−,
24: C−2, 25: C2H−, 26: CN−, 28:
Si−, 36: C−3, 37: C3H−, 40-42,
45: fragmental carbonaceous groups, 48:
C−4, 49: C4H−, 50: C4H−2, 60:
SiO−2, resp. C−5, 61: C5H−.
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=MiamiCaptionURL&_method=retriev
e&_udi=B6VBP-42G6M5T-7&_image=fig5&_ba=5
&_user=4422&_coverDate=02%2F01%2F2001&_f
mt=full&_orig=browse&_cdi=5932&view=c&_a
cct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&
_userid=4422&md5=d9195635e48bcf1f817c009
69102189f
cyanobacteria, 2α-methylhopanes.
[1] Figure 1 and Table 2 from: Jochen
J. Brocks, Graham A. Logan, Roger
Buick, Roger E. Summons, ''Archean
Molecular Fossils and the Early Rise of
Eukaryotes'', Science, Vol 285, Issue
5430, 1033-1036, 13 August 1999,
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/285/
5430/1033.abstract COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/285/5430/1033.abstract
cytoplasm.
[1] English: Endothelial cells under
the microscope. Nuclei are stained blue
with DAPI, microtubles are marked green
by an antibody bound to FITC and actin
filaments are labelled red with
phalloidin bound to TRITC. Bovine
pulmonary artery endothelial
cells http://rsb.info.nih.gov/ij/images
/ PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/09/FluorescentCells.jpg
[2] FIG. 7. In vitro polymerization
of cytoskeletal proteins of the
MinD/ParA superfamily. (A) Formation of
MinD filament bundles in the presence
of MinE, ATP, and phospholipid
vesicles. One end of the bundle is
markedly frayed because of the presence
of MinE. (Reprinted from reference 198
with permission of the publisher.
Copyright 2003 National Academy of
Sciences, U.S.A.) (B) Formation of a
ParApTP228(ParF) filament bundle in the
presence of ParBpTP228(ParG) and ATP.
ParBpTP228(ParG) stimulates formation
of the frayed end(s) of the
ParApTP228(ParF) bundle. (Reprinted
from reference 11 by permission from
Macmillan Publishers Ltd.) (C)
Formation of Soj filaments in the
presence of DNA and ATP. (Reprinted
from reference 116 by permission from
Macmillan Publishers Ltd.) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/
articles/PMC1594594/bin/zmr0030621350007
.jpg
evolve.
Unlike the prokaryote flagella that
rotate, the flagella and cilia of
eukaryotic cells undulate in a
wave-like motion to propel the cell.
However, the eukaryotic flagella and
cilia differ in their beating pattern;
a flagellum has an undulating motion
that produces force in the same
direction as the flagellum axis, while
cilia are more like oars, producing
force in a direction perpendicular to
the cilium axis with alternating power
and recovery strokes.
Some cilia are nonmotile and serve a
signal-receiving "antenna" for the
cell.
Although different in length, number
per cell, and beating pattern, motile
cilia and flagella are structurally the
same. Each has a core of microtubules.
Nine doublets of microtubules, the
members of each pair sharing part of
their walls, are arranged in a ring
surrounded by a plasma membrane. In the
center of the ring are two single
microtubules. This arrangement is
called the "9 + 2" pattern and is found
in nearly all eukaryotic flagella and
motile cilia. (Non-motil primary cilia
have a "9 + 0" pattern, lacking the
central pair of microtubules.
Many unicellular eukaryotes are
propelled through water by cilia or
flagella and the sperm of animals,
algae, and some plants have flagella.
In humans, cells in the windpipe have
cilia to move mucas out of the lungs,
and the cilia lining in a woman's
oviducts help move an egg toward the
uterus.
Some people refer to the eukaryote
flagellum as an "unduplipodium" to
remove confusion between the prokaryote
and eukaryote flagella. There is also a
theory that the eukaryote flagella may
evolve from a symbiotic Spirochaete
bacterium.
[1] Cilia and flagella are projections
from the cell. They are made up of
microtubules , as shown in this cartoon
and are covered by an extension of the
plasma membrane. They are motile and
designed either to move the cell itself
or to move substances over or around
the cell. The primary purpose of cilia
in mammalian cells is to move fluid,
mucous, or cells over their surface.
Cilia and flagella have the same
internal structure. The major
difference is in their length. This
figure shows a cross section of a
cilium next to a longitudinal section.
Below, we will see how the microtubules
are organized in the core (shown in the
cartoon in this figure). Also shown is
the centriole or basal body that
organizes the formation and direction
of the cilia. COPYRIGHTED
source: Description Transmission
electron microscope image, showing an
example of green algae
(Chlorophyta). Chlamydomanas
reinhardtii is a unicellular flagellate
used as a model system in molecular
genetics work and flagellar motility
studies. This image is a
longitudinal section through the
flagella area. In the cell apex is the
basal body that is the anchoring site
for a flagella. Basal bodies originate
from and have a substructure similar to
that of centrioles, with nine
peripheral microtubule triplets(see
structure at bottom center of image).
The two inner microtubules of each
triplet in a basal body become the two
outer doublets in the flagella. This
image also shows the transition region,
with its fibers of the stellate
structure. The top of the image shows
the flagella passing through the cell
wall. Date 20 September
2007 Source Source and public domain
notice at
http://remf.dartmouth.edu/imagesindex.ht
ml Author Dartmouth Electron
Microscope Facility, Dartmouth
College PD
[2] This figure shows an electron
micrograph of a cross section of a
cilium. Note that you can see the
dynein arms and the nexin links. The
dynein arms have ATPase activity. In
the presence of ATP, they can move from
one tubulin to another. They enable the
tubules to slide along one another so
the cilium can bend. The dynein
bridges are regulated so that sliding
leads to synchronized bending. Because
of the nexin and radial spokes, the
doublets are held in place so sliding
is limited lengthwise. If nexin and the
radial spokes are subjected to enzyme
digestion, and exposed to ATP, the
doublets will continue to slide and
telescope up to 9X their length.
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Chlamydomonas_T
EM_09.jpg/1280px-Chlamydomonas_TEM_09.jp
g
chromosomes (instead of a circular
chromosome) evolve.
[1] A DNA molecule is very long (a few
meters) but extremely thin (narrow;
measured in nanometers). Here is an
electron microscope photo of a DNA
strand: PD
source: http://rst.gsfc.nasa.gov/Sect20/
dna1.jpg
[2] [t Is this an accurate image? - Is
a chromosome made of a single wound
strand of DNA? update- no see image
8] Every cell in the human body
(except red blood cells) contains 23
pairs of chromosomes. (a) Each
chromosome is made up of a tightly
coiled strand of DNA. (b) DNA’s
uncoiled state reveals its familiar
double helix shape. If DNA is pictured
as a twisted ladder, its sides, made of
sugar and phosphate molecules, are
connected by (c) rungs made of
chemicals called bases. DNA has four
bases—adenine, thymine, guanine, and
cytosine—that form interlocking
pairs. The order of the bases along the
length of the ladder is the DNA
sequence. PD
source: https://www.llnl.gov/str/June03/
gifs/Stubbs1.gif
intermediate stages between cell
division and DNA synthesis.
In prokaryotes, DNA synthesis can take
place uninterrupted between cell
divisions, but eukaryotes duplicate
their DNA exactly once during a
discrete period between cell divisions.
This period is called the S (for
synthetic) phase. It is preceded by a
period called G1 (meaning "first gap")
and followed by a period called G2,
during which nuclear DNA synthesis does
not occur.
[1] Figure 14.1Phases of the cell
cycle The division cycle of most
eukaryotic cells is divided into four
discrete phases: M, G1, S, and G2. M
phase (mitosis) is usually followed by
cytokinesis. S phase is the period
during which DNA replication occurs.
The cell grows throughout interphase,
which includes G1, S, and G2. The
relative lengths of the cell cycle
phases shown here are typical of
rapidly replicating mammalian
cells. From: The Eukaryotic Cell
Cycle The Cell: A Molecular
Approach. 2nd edition. Cooper
GM. Sunderland (MA): Sinauer
Associates; 2000. Copyright © 2000,
Geoffrey M Cooper. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/book
s/NBK9876/bin/ch14f1.jpg
[2] The cell cycle. Image from Purves
et al., Life: The Science of Biology,
4th Edition, by Sinauer Associates
(www.sinauer.com) and WH Freeman
(www.whfreeman.com) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/facu
lty/farabee/biobk/cellcycle.gif
Mitosis is the process in eukaryotic
cell division in which the duplicated
chromosomes are separated and the
nucleus divides resulting in two new
nuclei, each of which contains an
identical copy of the parental
chromosomes. Mitosis is usually
immediately followed by cytokinesis,
the division of the cytoplasm.
All eukaryote cells divide using the
same general plan. The cell division
cycle contains four stages, G1 ("first
gap"), S ("synthesis"), G2 ("second
gap"), and M ("mitotic phase". The
first three stages are called
"interphase" which alternates with the
mitotic phase. Interphase is a much
longer stage that often accounts for
90% of the cycle. During interphase the
cell grows and copies its chromosomes
in preparation for cell division. In
the mitotic phase, mitosis, division of
the nucleus is followed by cytokinesis.
[1] Mitosis divides genetic information
during cell division Source:
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/About/primer
/genetics_cell.html This image is
from the Science Primer, a work of the
National Center for Biotechnology
Information, part of the National
Institutes of Health. As a work of the
U.S. federal government, the image is
in the public domain.
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mit
osis
[2] Prophase: The two round objects
above the nucleus are the centrosomes.
Note the condensed chromatin. from
Gray's Anatomy. Unless stated
otherwise, it is from the online
edition of the 20th U.S. edition of
Gray's Anatomy of the Human Body,
originally published in 1918. Online
editions can be found on Bartleby and
also on Yahoo!
source: UNKNOWN
[1] Bacillus specie soil
bacteria. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.scharfphoto.com/fine_
art_prints/archives/199812-054-Soil-Bact
eria.jpg
[2] Description Deutsch: Myxococcus
xanthus bildet Fruchtkörper, ca.
50-fach vergrößert. English:
Starving colony of Myxococcus xanthus
forms fruiting bodies. Date
August 2006 Source own work
by Trance Gemini Author Trance
Gemini on
de.wikipedia.org Permission (Reusing
this file) GFDL Other versions from
de.wikipedia
http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bild:M._xan
thus_development.png 18:37, 22. Aug
2006 . . Trance Gemini . . 2088 x 1550
(4.365.260 Bytes) GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/42/M._xanthus_developmen
t.png
identical cells fuse (isogamy). First
diploid cell. First zygote. Increase in
genetic variety. Haplontic life cycle.
Because of sex, two cells with
different DNA can mix providing more
genetic variety. Having two chromosome
sets also provides a backup copy of
important genes.
All sexual species alternate between
haploid and diploid. There are three
main different types of sexual life
cycles; haplontic, haplodiplontic, and
diplontic.
The earliest form of eukaryote sexual
reproduction is probably isogamy,
fusion between two identical
(genderless) cells.
This fusion of two haploid cells
results in the first diploid
single-celled organism, which may then
immediately divide back to two haploid
cells.
Note that gender (anisogamy) probably
evolves later, initially sex is
probably the fusion of two
indistinguishable cells (isogamy).
[1] Theoretical first eukaryote
sex adapted from image of gametic
meiosis GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Zygotic_meiosis.jpg
[2] Zygotic Meiosis. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Zygotic_meiosis.png
a single cell division of a diploid
cell into two haploid cells).
Meiosis, which looks similar to
mitosis, is the process of cell
division in sexually reproducing
organisms that reduces the number of
chromosomes in reproductive cells from
diploid to haploid, leading to the
production of gametes in animals and
spores in plants.
Without the reduction back to haploid,
genomes would double in size with every
generation.
[1] [t One-step zygotic meiosis (also
known as gametic meiosis)- gametes fuse
into 2n and then divide back into
1n] Drawn by self for Biological life
cycle Scan black/white/grey
outline Paint Shop Pro Reduce size
(by 20%) Brightness/contrast to get
rid of artifacts Copy-&-paste the
multicellular balls Fill-in
colours Labelling Re-fix details by
going back to Layer 1. Based on
Freeman & Worth's Biology of Plants (p.
171). GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/23/Gametic_meiosis.png
[2] GametoGenesis. COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://www.bio.miami.edu/dana/10
4/gametogenesis.jpg
This begins the "diplontic" life cycle
(with gametic meiosis), where diploid
cells (a zygote) can copy asexually
through mitosis after merging. This
organism, when haploid, cannot do
mitosis, and this is still true in all
descendents (including humans) of this
single celled organism.
Mitosis of diploid cells
evolves. This begins the "diplontic"
life cycle (with gametic meiosis),
where diploid cells (a zygote) can copy
asexually through mitosis after
merging. This organism, when haploid,
cannot do mitosis (presumably haploid
gamete mitosis will evolve much later
in brown algae), and this is still true
in all descendents (including humans)
of this single celled organism.
The proteins and mechanism of mitosis
of diploid cells is probably very
similar to mitosis of haploid cells.
The most primitive organisms still
alive that are diplontic are the
metamonads (e.g. Oxymonads: Notila,
Hypermastigotes: Urinympha,
Macrospironympha, Rhynchonympha).
Anisogamy {aNISoGomE}, sex (cell and
nucleus fusion) between two cells that
are different in size or shape.
Possibly eukaryote cell fusion and
gender is directly descended from
prokaryote conjugation.
[1] Description Different types of
en:anisogamy: A) Anisogamy of motile
gametes B) Oogamy (non-motile egg
cell, motile sperm cell) C) Anisogamy
of non-motile
gametes Date 2008-06-30 02:07
(UTC) Source Anisogamy.png Author
This SVG version by Qef
(talk) Anisogamy.png: Original
uploader was Tameeria at
en.wikipedia Later versions were
uploaded by Helix84 at
en.wikipedia. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Anisogamy.svg/1
000px-Anisogamy.svg.png
[2] Mixing of: Fig. 7. Isogamous
(left, Gymnodinium nolleri) and
anisogamous (right, Alexandrium
tamutum) gamete pairs. © Rosa I.
Figueroa and Fig. 8. Fusing gamete
pair in Gymnodinium catenatum (left)
and its nuclei in fusion process. ©
Rosa I. Figueroa COPYRIGHTED
source: http://tolweb.org/tree/ToLimages
/dinolifecyclefig.7.250a.jpg
and an unflagellated gamete evolves in
protists (oogamy {OoGomE}, a form of
anisogamy).
copies and then the cell divides twice
into four haploid cells).
Most protists divide by two-step
meiosis, and one-step meiosis is rare.
[1] GametoGenesis. COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://www.bio.miami.edu/dana/10
4/gametogenesis.jpg
[2] Sexual cycle oxymonas, identical
to saccinobaculus, one step meiosis.
haploid. COPYRIGHTED CANADA
source: http://www.zoology.ubc.ca/~redfi
eld/clevelan/oxymonas.GIF
"Deinococcus-Thermus" (includes Thermus
Aquaticus {used in PCR}, Deinococcus
radiodurans {can survive long exposure
to radiation}).
[1] D. radiodurans growing on a
nutrient agar plate. The red color is
due to carotenoid pigment. Links to
816x711-pixel, 351KB JPG. Credit: M.
Daly, Uniformed Services University of
the Health Sciences NASA
source: http://science.nasa.gov/newhome/
headlines/images/conan/D_rad_dish.jpg
[2] Photomicrograph of Deinococcus
radiodurans, from
www.ornl.gov/ORNLReview/ v34 The Oak
Ridge National Laboratory United
States Federal Government This work
is in the public domain because it is a
work of the United States Federal
Government. This applies worldwide. See
Copyright.
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Deinococcus.jpg
{SIeNOBaKTEREu}. Cyanobacteria are the
ancestor of all eukaryote plastids (for
example chloroplasts). There is a
conflict between the interpretation of
the geological and the genetic
evidence: there is fossil evidence that
suggests cyanobacteria existed as early
as 3800 mybn but the genetic evidence
places the origin of cyanobacteria here
at 2500 mybn.
[1] Oscillatoria COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://www.stcsc.edu/ecology/alg
ae/oscillatoria.jpg
[2] Lyngbya COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://www.stanford.edu/~bohanna
n/Media/LYNGB5.jpg
(Green Non-Sulphur bacteria).
[1] Chloroflexus photomicrograph from
Doe Joint Genome Institute of US Dept
Energy PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Chlorofl.jpg
Proterozoic {PrOTReZOiK or ProTReZOiK}
Eon.
The Proterozoic spans from 2,500 to 542
million years ago, and represents 42%
of Earth's history.
[1] Geologic Time Scale 2009 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.geosociety.org/scienc
e/timescale/timescl.pdf
[1] snowball Earth UNKNOWN
source: http://www.cosmosmagazine.com/fi
les/imagecache/feature/files/features/pr
int/20090528_snowball_earth.jpg
[2] Snowball Earth Snowball Earth
describes a theory that for millions of
years the Earth was entirely smothered
in ice, stretching from the poles to
the tropics. This freezing happened
over 650 million years ago in the
Pre-Cambrian, though it's now thought
that there may have been more than one
of these global glaciations. They
varied in duration and extent but
during a full-on snowball event, life
could only cling on in ice-free
refuges, or where sunlight managed to
penetrate through the ice to allow
photosynthesis. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.bbc.co.uk/nature/imag
es/ic/credit/640x395/s/sn/snowball_earth
/snowball_earth_1.jpg
filamentous prokaryotes, creating
organisms with different kinds of
cells.
[1] Adapted from: Anabaena smitthi
COPYRIGHTED FRANCE
source: http://www.ac-rennes.fr/pedagogi
e/svt/photo/microalg/anabaena.jpg
[2] Anabaena COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://home.manhattan.edu/~franc
es.cardillo/plants/monera/anabaena.gif
nitrogen compounds like ammonia from
Nitrogen gas in the air.
Unlike most other bacteria, some
filamentous cyanobacteria evolved a
degree of cell differentiation,
producing both specialized cells for
nitrogen fixation (heterocysts) and
resting cells able to endure
environmental stress (akinetes).
Without bacteria that convert N2 into
nitrogen compounds, the supply of
nitrogen necessary for much of life
would be seriously limited and would
drastically slow evolution on earth.
[1] Fig. 2. Modern cyanobacterial
akinetes and Archaeoellipsoides
fossils. (A) Three-month-old culture of
living A. cylindrica grown in a medium
without combined nitrogen. A, akinete;
H, heterocyst; V, vegetative cells.
(B–D) Shown are Archaeoellipsoides
fossils from 1,500-Ma Billyakh Group,
northern Siberia (B); 1,650-Ma McArthur
Group, northern Australia (C); and
2,100-Ma Franceville Group, Gabon (D).
(Scale bars, 10 μm.) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.pnas.org/content/103/
14/5442/F2.large.jpg
[2] Fig. 2. Modern cyanobacterial
akinetes and Archaeoellipsoides
fossils. (A) Three-month-old culture of
living A. cylindrica grown in a medium
without combined nitrogen. A, akinete;
H, heterocyst; V, vegetative cells.
(B–D) Shown are Archaeoellipsoides
fossils from 1,500-Ma Billyakh Group,
northern Siberia (B); 1,650-Ma McArthur
Group, northern Australia (C); and
2,100-Ma Franceville Group, Gabon (D).
(Scale bars, 10 μm.) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.pnas.org/content/103/
14/5442/F2.large.jpg
nucleolus is a sphere in the nucleus
that makes ribosomes.
[1] Nucleolus, COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.eccentrix.com/members
/chempics/Slike/cell/Nucleolus.jpg
[2] With the combination of x-rays
from the Advanced Light Source and a
new protein-labeling technique,
scientists can see the distribution of
the nucleoli within the nucleus of a
mammary epithelial cell. USG PD
source: http://www.lbl.gov/Science-Artic
les/Archive/xray-inside-cells.html
reticulum evolve in a eukaryote cell.
The endoplasmic reticulum is a membrane
system that extends from the nucleus,
important in the synthesis of proteins
and lipids.
[1] Figure 1 : Image of n, endoplasmic
reticulum and Golgi apparatus. (1)
Nucleus. (2) Nuclear pore. (3) Rough
endoplasmic reticulum (RER). (4) Smooth
endoplasmic reticulum (SER). (5)
Ribosome on the rough ER. (6) Proteins
that are transported. (7) Transport
vesicle. (8) Golgi apparatus. (9) Cis
face of the Golgi apparatus. (10) Trans
face of the Golgi apparatus. (11)
Cisternae of the Golgi apparatus. I
am the copyright holder of that image
(I might even have the CorelDraw file
around somewhere:-), and I hereby place
the image and all partial images
created from it in the public domain.
So, you are free to use it any way you
like. In fact, I am delighted that one
of my drawings makes it into
print! I can mail you the .cdr file,
if you like (and if I can find it), if
you need a better resolution for
printing. Yours, Magnus
Manske Source: See also User:Magnus
Manske
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Nucleus_ER_golgi.jpg
[2] Description English: The
elongation and membrane targeting
stages of eukaryotic translation. The
ribosome is green and yellow, the tRNAs
are dark blue, and the other proteins
involved are light blue. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3c/Translation.gif
(packages proteins and lipids into
vesicles for delivery to targeted
destinations).
A vesicle is a closed structure, found
only in eukaryotic cells, that is
completely surrounded by a membrane
but, unlike a vacuole, contains
non-liquid material.
[1] Figure 1: Image of nucleus,
endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi
apparatus: (1) Nucleus, (2) Nuclear
pore, (3) Rough endoplasmic reticulum
(RER), (4) Smooth endoplasmic reticulum
(SER), (5) Ribosome on the rough ER,
(6) Proteins that are transported, (7)
Transport vesicle, (8) Golgi apparatus,
(9) Cis face of the Golgi apparatus,
(10) Trans face of the Golgi apparatus,
(11) Cisternae of the Golgi apparatus,
(12) Secretory vesicle, (13) Plasma
membrane, (14) Exocytosis, (15)
Cytoplasm, (16) Extracellular space.
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Nucleus_ER_golgi_ex.jpg
[2] no description UNKNOWN
source: http://sun.menloschool.org/~cwea
ver/cells/e/lysosomes/
accumulating in the air of Earth, most
recent uraninite {YRANninIT}, a mineral
that cannot exist for much time if
exposed to oxygen.
formed on land, begin here, and are
also evidence of more free oxygen in
the air of Earth.
[1]
http://www.kgs.ukans.edu/Extension/redhi
lls/redhills.html
source: http://www.kgs.ukans.edu/Extensi
on/redhills/redhills.html
[2] In Archean rocks, metals tend to
occur in low oxidation states (for
example, Fe2+ instead of Fe3+)
indicating a high metal:oxygen ratio in
the oceans and atmosphere. The
sediments are essentially rust-free.
After the late Proterozoic,
sedimentary deposits often have reddish
colors and are called red beds due to
the presence of iron-oxide coatings
between sand grains. From the later
Proterozoic onward, enough free oxygen
has been available to oxidize iron in
sediments. A sandstone butte outside
of Sedona, Arizona. Public domain
image by Jon Sullivan. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/38/Butte_pdphoto_roadtri
p_24_bg_021604.jpg
shows the eubacteria and archaebacteria
line separating here at 2,156 mybn,
first archaebacteria.
related to Rickettsia prowazekii, an
aerobic proteobacteria, is engulfed by
an early eukaryote cell and over time a
symbiotic relationship evolves, where
the Rickettsia forms the mitochondria.
Mitochondria are membrane-bound
organelles found in the cytoplasm of
almost all eukaryotic cells, where
cellular respiration occurs and most of
the ATP in a eukaryote cell is
produced.
In eukaryotes the mitochondria perform
the Citric Acid Cycle and Oxidative
phosphorylation using oxygen to
breakdown pyruvagte from glycolysis
into CO2 and H2O, and provide up 36 ATP
molecules.
This presumes that all known living
eukaryotes descend from a eukaryote
that had mitochondria, and that
eukaryotes without mitochondria, like
the metamonada, lost their mitochondria
secondarily.
[1] Figure from: Michael W. Gray, et
al, ''Genome structure and gene content
in protist mitochondrial DNAs'',
Nucl. Acids Res. (1998) 26(4):
865-878 doi:10.1093/nar/26.4.865
http://nar.oxfordjournals.org/content/
26/4/865.full Phylogenetic hypothesis
of the eukaryotic lineage based on
ultrastructural and molecular data.
Organisms are divided into three main
groups distinguished by mitochondrial
cristal shape (either discoidal,
flattened or tubular). Unbroken lines
indicate phylogenetic relationships
that are firmly supported by available
data; broken lines indicate
uncertainties in phylogenetic
placement, resolution of which will
require additional data. Color coding
of organismal genus names indicates
mitochondrial genomes that have been
completely (Table 1), almost completely
(Jakoba, Naegleria and
Thraustochytrium) or partially (*)
sequenced by the OGMP (red), the FMGP
(black) or other groups (green). Names
in blue indicate those species whose
mtDNAs are currently being sequenced by
the OGMP or are future candidates for
complete sequencing. Amitochondriate
retortamonads are positioned at the
base of the tree, with broken arrows
denoting the endosymbiotic origin(s) of
mitochondria from a Rickettsia-like
eubacterium. Macrophar.,
Macropharyngomonas.
source: http://nar.oxfordjournals.org/co
ntent/vol26/issue4/images/gkb18201.gif
[2] Figure 1 Phylogenetic tree of
eukaryotes based on ultrastructural and
molecular data. Organisms are
sub-divided into main groups as
discussed in the text. Only a few
representative species for which
complete (or almost complete) mtDNA
sequences are known are shown in each
lineage. In some cases, line drawings
or actual pictures of the organisms are
provided (Acanthamoeba, M. Nagata; URL:
http://protist.i.hosei.ac.jp/PDB/PCD3379
/htmls/21.html; Allomyces, Tom Volk;
URL:
http://botit.botany.wisc.edu/images/332/
Chytridiomycota/Allomyces_r_So_pa/A._arb
uscula_pit._sporangia_tjv.html;
Amoebidium, URL:
http://cgdc3.igmors.upsud.fr/microbiolog
ie/mesomycetozoaires.htm; Marchantia,
URL:
http://www.science.siu.edu/landplants/He
patophyta/images/March.female.JPEG
Scenedesmus, Entwisle et al.,
http://www.rbgsyd.gov.au/_data/page/1824
/Scenedesmus.gif). The color-coding of
the main groups (alternating between
dark and light blue) on the outer
circle corresponds to the color-coding
of the species names. Unbroken lines
indicate phylogenetic relationships
that are firmly supported by available
molecular data; broken lines indicate
uncertainties in phylogenetic
placement, resolution of which will
require additional sequence data. [t:
why not color code or add which type of
mito?]
source: http://arjournals.annualreviews.
org/doi/full/10.1146/annurev.genet.37.11
0801.142526
genes regulate the building of major
body parts in algae, plants, fungi and
animals.
In 1894 William Bateson coined the term
"homeosis" for a mutation which causes
a part of a body to appear in some
different part. "Homeo" comes from
Bateson's "homoeosis" and "box" refers
to a "box" of 180 nucleotide code
letters that all genes known as
homeobox genes have somewhere in their
length. The name "Hox" is not used for
all homeobox genes but only for the
linear arrays of genes that determine
position along the length of an
animal's body and which are homologous
in nearly all animals.
In one experiment, when a hox gene
responsible for growing a mouse eye is
added to the cell of a fruit-fly embryo
that is destined to be a leg, an extra
fruit fly eye is built on the leg.
(Interesting how the gene array may
equate linearly to different positions
of the animal body.)
[1] {ULSF: Homeobox genes} Desajustes
en el modelo UNKNOWN
source: http://cnho.files.wordpress.com/
2010/07/hox_genes_illus.png
[2] {ULSF: Homeobox genes} UNKNOWN
source: http://cnho.files.wordpress.com/
2010/07/homeobox1.jpg
multicellular fossil (Grypania).
spiralis is about 10 cm long, and is
thought to be a filamentous algae. If
eukaryote, Grypania would be the
earliest filamentous multicellular
eukaryote fossil.
Other Grypania fossils that are 1
billion years old have been found in
India. Grypania may be a eukaryote
algae but may also be a gigantic
cyanobacteria.
USA
[1]
file:/root/web/Grypania_spiralis_wmel000
0.htm
source: file:/root/web/Grypania_spiralis
_wmel0000.htm
[2]
http://www.peripatus.gen.nz/paleontology
/lrgGrypaniaspiralis.jpg
source: http://www.peripatus.gen.nz/pale
ontology/lrgGrypaniaspiralis.jpg
shows the archaebacteria and eukaryote
line separating here at 1,870 mybn
(first eukaryote, and first protist).
[1] Ted Huntington PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/62/MichiganBIF.jpg
[2] Ted Huntington PD
source: Ted Huntington
(and Stramenopiles) fossils.
If eukaryote these would be the
earliest eukaryote fossils with both
filamentous multicellularity and cell
differentiation.
North China
[1] Figure 4 from: Zhu Shixing and
Chen Huineng, ''Megascopic
Multicellular Organisms from the
1700-Million-Year-Old Tuanshanzi
Formation in the Jixian Area, North
China'', Science , New Series, Vol.
270, No. 5236 (Oct. 27, 1995), pp.
620-622. http://www.jstor.org/stable/28
88330 {Shixing_Huineng_19950331.pdf} C
OPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2888
330
[2] Figure 3 from: Zhu Shixing and
Chen Huineng, ''Megascopic
Multicellular Organisms from the
1700-Million-Year-Old Tuanshanzi
Formation in the Jixian Area, North
China'', Science , New Series, Vol.
270, No. 5236 (Oct. 27, 1995), pp.
620-622. http://www.jstor.org/stable/28
88330 {Shixing_Huineng_19950331.pdf} C
OPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2888
330
shows Gram-negative and Gram-positive
eubacteria here at 1,584 mybn (first
Gram-positive bacteria).
eukaryotes divides into bikont and
unikont descendants. Bikonts lead to
all Chromalveolates, Excavates,
Rhizaria, and Plants. Unikonts lead to
all Amoebozoa, Animals and Fungi.
Since members of both the unikont
(animals, fungi) and bikont
(metamonads, plants) can reproduce
sexually, sex had to evolve before this
branching, presuming sexual
reproduction did not evolve twice.
[1] Figure 1: Figure 1. Eukaryote
phylogeny integrating ultrastructure,
sequence trees, gene fusions and
molecular cladistic markers. The
unikont topology is established, but
the branching order of the six bikont
groups remains uncertain. The single
enslavement [12] of a red alga (R) to
create chromalveolates is supported by
a plastid glyceraldehyde phosphate
dehydrogenase (GAPDH) replacement [13].
Whether there was a single enslavement
of a green alga (G) to form cabozoa or
two separate enslavements (asterisks)
to form Cercozoa and Excavata is
uncertain [12], as is the position of
Heliozoa [14]. Polyubiquitin [15] and
EF-1α[16] insertions strongly support
the clades core Rhizaria and
opisthokonts. The inset shows the BamHI
restriction fragment from H.
cantabrigiensis that was sequenced and
analysed in this study, spanning the
DHFR and the amino terminus of the TS
gene (red, introns are green). The
length of the noncoding regions
upstream and downstream of the DHFR
gene from one of the clones is
indicated. Figure 1 from: Stechmann
A, Cavalier-Smith T, ''The root of the
eukaryote tree pinpointed.'', 2003,
Curr. Biol. 13, R665–R666.
doi:10.1016/S0960-9822(03)00602-X. http
://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article
/pii/S096098220300602X COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=MiamiCaptionURL&_method=retriev
e&_eid=1-s2.0-S096098220300602X&_image=1
-s2.0-S096098220300602X-gr1_lrg.jpg&_ba=
&_fmt=full&_orig=na&_issn=09609822&_pii=
S096098220300602X&_isHiQual=Y&_acct=C000
059600&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=
4422&md5=cec46b2161caca87740f4ff34545ab6
9
[2] cavalier-smith diagram COPYRIGHTED
source: cavalier_jmolevol_2003_56_540-56
3.pdf
Phylum Amoebozoa (also called
Ramicristates) which includes amoeba
and slime molds evolving now.
Feeding using pseudopods.
The Amoebozoa are a major group of
amoeboid protozoa, including the
majority that move by means of internal
cytoplasmic flow. Their pseudopodia are
characteristically blunt and
finger-like, called lobopodia. Most are
unicellular, and are common in soils
and aquatic habitats, with some found
as symbiotes of other organisms,
including several pathogens. The
Amoebozoa also include the slime
moulds, multinucleate or multicellular
forms that produce spores and are
usually visible to the unaided eye.
[1] SUBPHYLUM Lobosa CLASS Amoebaea
Chaos diffluens, an amoeba. Photo
released by Dr. Ralf Wagner.
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Chaos_diffluens.jpg
[2] CLASS Amoebaea Mayorella (may-or
-ell-a) a medium sized free-living
naked amoeba with conical pseudopodia.
Central body is the nucleus. Phase
contrast. This picture was taken by
David Patterson of material from
Limulus-ridden sediments at Plum Island
(Massachusetts USA) in spring and
summer, 2001. NONCOMMERCIAL USE
source: http://microscope.mbl.edu/script
s/microscope.php?func=imgDetail&imageID=
515
If true this would be the oldest
eukaryote fossil.
[1] a, c, Tappania plana, showing
asymmetrically distributed processes
and bulbous protrusions (arrow in a).
b, detail of a, showing dichotomously
branching process. d, Valeria
lophostriata. e, Dictyosphaera sp. f,
Satka favosa. The scale bar in a is 35
m for a and c; 10 m for b; 100 m for d;
15 m for e; and 40 m for f. Figure 1
from: Javaux, Emmanuelle J., Andrew H.
Knoll, and Malcolm R. Walter.
“Morphological and Ecological
Complexity in Early Eukaryotic
Ecosystems.” Nature 412.6842 (2001):
66–69.
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
412/n6842/abs/412066a0.html
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v412/n6842/images/412066aa.2.jpg
[2] Figure 2 from: JAVAUX, EMMANUELLE
J., ANDREW H. KNOLL, and MALCOLM R.
WALTER. “TEM Evidence for Eukaryotic
Diversity in mid-Proterozoic Oceans.”
Geobiology 2.3 (2004):
121–132. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.c
om/doi/10.1111/j.1472-4677.2004.00027.x/
full COPYRIGHTED
source: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/s
tore/10.1111/j.1472-4677.2004.00027.x/as
set/image_n/GBI_027_f2.gif?v=1&t=gyteims
d&s=6988e942a6736a4fd4f748f2cefcc1acfbd2
ea74
Fungi, Choanoflagellates and Animals).
Mitochondria with flattened christae.
[1] Parasite spore, SEM Z115/0073
Rights Managed Credit: EYE OF
SCIENCE/SCIENCE PHOTO
LIBRARY Caption: Parasite spore.
Coloured scanning electron micrograph
(SEM) of a microsporidian (Tubulinosema
ratisbonensis) spore cultured on human
lung fibroblast cells (brown).
Microsporidia are single-celled
parasites. T. ratisbonenesis is a
parasite of the fruit fly (Drosophila
melanogaster), but may also be able to
infect humans with weakened immune
systems. The spore is the infective
phase of the life cycle. It is excreted
by the old host and enters the gut of a
new host. The contents of the spore,
the sporoplasm, is injected into the
host's cell via the polar tubule. Once
in the cell the organism divides many
times with the resultant organisms
producing more spores. Magnification:
x10,000 at 10 centimetres
wide. Release details: Model and
property releases are not available
UNKNOWN
source: http://www.sciencephoto.com/imag
e/365473/large/Z1150073-Parasite_spore,_
SEM-SPL.jpg
[2] Parasite spore, SEM Z115/0073
Rights Managed Credit: EYE OF
SCIENCE/SCIENCE PHOTO
LIBRARY Caption: Parasite spore.
Coloured scanning electron micrograph
(SEM) of a microsporidian (Tubulinosema
ratisbonensis) spore cultured on human
lung fibroblast cells (brown).
Microsporidia are single-celled
parasites. T. ratisbonenesis is a
parasite of the fruit fly (Drosophila
melanogaster), but may also be able to
infect humans with weakened immune
systems. The spore is the infective
phase of the life cycle. It is excreted
by the old host and enters the gut of a
new host. The contents of the spore,
the sporoplasm, is injected into the
host's cell via the polar tubule. Once
in the cell the organism divides many
times with the resultant organisms
producing more spores. Magnification:
x10,000 at 10 centimetres
wide. Release details: Model and
property releases are not available
UNKNOWN
source: http://www.sciencephoto.com/imag
e/365473/large/Z1150073-Parasite_spore,_
SEM-SPL.jpg
Eukaryotes evolves.
The difference between this organism
and single-celled organisms is the way
the cells stay fastened together after
cell division. These multicellular
organisms have undifferentiated cells
in the multicellular stage (all cells
in the haploid multicellular organism
are made of one kind of cell).
Multicellularity seems to have arisen
multiple times independently in
eukaryotes: in fungi, animals, slime
molds, charophyte algae (and their
descendants, the land plants), and
certain other green, red and brown
algae. With multicellularity comes the
evolution of differentiation, the
allocation of cells to different
functions during the development of an
organism.
Formation) Somerset Island, arctic
Canada
[1] Bodanella (bow-dan-ell-a)
lauterbornii, a branching filamentous
brown alga. Nearly all brown algae are
marine organisms, but this species is
found in the bottoms of freshwater
lakes. Bright field. data on this
strain. This image is of material
from Provasoli-Guillard National Center
for Culture of Marine Phytoplankton,
images taken by David Patterson and Bob
Andersen. Image copyright: Bob Andersen
and D. J. Patterson, image used under
license to MBL
(micro*scope). NONCOMMERCIAL USE ONLY
source: http://starcentral.mbl.edu/msr/r
awdata/files/bodonella_bgz.zip
[2] Bodanella (bow-dan-ell-a)
lauterbornii, a branching filamentous
brown alga. Nearly all brown algae are
marine organisms, but this species is
found in the bottoms of freshwater
lakes. Bright field. data on this
strain. This image is of material
from Provasoli-Guillard National Center
for Culture of Marine Phytoplankton,
images taken by David Patterson and Bob
Andersen. Image copyright: Bob Andersen
and D. J. Patterson, image used under
license to MBL
(micro*scope). NONCOMMERCIAL USE ONLY
source: http://starcentral.mbl.edu/msr/r
awdata/viewable/bodonella_bgw.jpg
form plastids (chloroplasts) through
symbiosis, within a eukaryote cell
(endosymbiosis). Like mitochondria,
these organelles copy themselves and
are not made by the cell DNA.
Chloroplasts use their green pigment to
trap light particles to synthesize
carbon compounds from carbon dioxide
and water supplied by the host plant.
This is a primary plastid
endosymbiosis, and genetic analysis
supports the theory that all green
plants, which are eukaryotes with
double membrane plastids, are descended
from a single common ancestor. The
inner wall being that of the bacterium,
the outer wall that of the alga.
[1] Description Plagiomnium
affine, Laminazellen, Rostock Date
created 01.11.2006 Source
photographed by myself Author
Kristian Peters --
Fabelfroh Permission (Reusing this
file) GFDL
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/49/Plagiomnium_affine_la
minazellen.jpeg
and red algae and land plants).
This begins the plant kingdom. This
first plant is a single cell, similar
to glaucophytes.
Note that brown algae is not viewed as
a plant but as a protist (in the
Chromealveolate Stramenopiles).
[1] ? COPYRIGHTED
source: http://protist.i.hosei.ac.jp/PDB
3/PCD3711/htmls/86.html
[2] (See Image) COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004). (c1500)
evolves according to genetic
comparison.
[1] Close-up of a red alga (Genus?
Laurencia), Class Florideophyceae,
Order=? a marine seaweed from Hawaii.
GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Laurencia.jpg
[2] Bangia atropurpurea Profile:
unbranched filaments in tufts. Often
forming dense fringes in the spalsh
zone. Uniseriate at base, multiseriate
above with protoplasts separate in a
firm gelatinous sheath. Stellate
chloroplasts. US NOAA PD
source: http://www.glerl.noaa.gov/seagra
nt/GLWL/Algae/Rhodophyta/Cards/Bangia.ht
ml
Parabasalids {PaRu-BAS-a-liDS}, and
Diplomonads {DiP-lO-mO-naDZ} {like
Giardia {JE-oR-DE-u}).
[1] A timescale of eukaryote evolution.
The times for each node are taken from
the summary times in Table 1, except
for nodes 1 (310 Ma), 2 (360 Ma), 3
(450 Ma), and 4 (520 Ma), which are
from the fossil record [25]; nodes 8
(1450 Ma) and 16 (1587 Ma) are
phylogenetically constrained and are
the midpoints between adjacent nodes.
Nodes 12–14 were similar in time and
therefore shown as a multifurcation at
1000 Ma; likewise, nodes 21–22 are
shown as a multifurcation at 1967 Ma.
The star indicates the occurrence of
red algae in the fossil record at 1200
Ma, the oldest taxonomically
identifiable eukaryote [12]. Hedges
et al. BMC Evolutionary Biology 2004
4:2
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-4-2 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.biomedcentral.com/con
tent/figures/1471-2148-4-2-2.jpg
[2] Giardia lamblia, a parasitic
flagellate that causes giardiasis.
Image from public domain source at
http://www.nigms.nih.gov/news/releases/i
mages/para.jpg
source: http://www.nigms.nih.gov/news/re
leases/images/para.jpg
through endosymbiosis, becomes a
plastid in the ancestor of all
chromalveolates.
This is a secondary plastid
endosymbiosis, where an algae cell is
captured instead of a cyanobacterium. A
secondary plastid symbiosis results in
a plastid with more than two membranes.
[1] Fig. 2. The tree of life based
on molecular, ultrastructural and
palaeontological evidence. Contrary to
widespread assumptions, the root is
among the eubacteria, probably within
the double-enveloped Negibacteria, not
between eubacteria and archaebacteria
(Cavalier-Smith, 2002b); it may lie
between Eobacteria and other
Negibacteria (Cavalier-Smith, 2002b).
The position of the eukaryotic root has
been nearly as controversial, but is
less hard to establish: it probably
lies between unikonts and bikonts (Lang
et al., 2002; Stechmann and
Cavalier-Smith, 2002, 2003). For
clarity the basal eukaryotic kingdom
Protozoa is not labelled; it comprises
four major groups (alveolates, cabozoa,
Amoebozoa and Choanozoa) plus the small
bikont phylum Apusozoa of unclear
precise position; whether Heliozoa are
protozoa as shown or chromists is
uncertain (Cavalier-Smith, 2003b).
Symbiogenetic cell enslavement occurred
four or five times: in the origin of
mitochondria and chloroplasts from
different negibacteria, of
chromalveolates by the enslaving of a
red alga (Cavalier-Smith, 1999, 2003;
Harper and Keeling, 2003) and in the
origin of the green plastids of
euglenoid (excavate) and chlorarachnean
(cercozoan) algae—a green algal cell
was enslaved either by the ancestral
cabozoan (arrow) or (less likely) twice
independently within excavates and
Cercozoa (asterisks) (Cavalier-Smith,
2003a). The upper thumbnail sketch
shows membrane topology in the
chimaeric cryptophytes (class
Cryptophyceae of the phylum Cryptista);
in the ancestral chromist the former
food vacuole membrane fused with the
rough endoplasmic reticulum placing the
enslaved cell within its lumen (red) to
yield the complex membrane topology
shown. The large host nucleus and the
tiny nucleomorph are shown in blue,
chloroplast green and mitochondrion
purple. In chlorarachneans (class
Chlorarachnea of phylum Cercozoa) the
former food vacuole membrane remained
topologically distinct from the ER to
become an epiplastid membrane and so
did not acquire ribosomes on its
surface, but their membrane topology is
otherwise similar to the cryptophytes.
The other sketches portray the four
major kinds of cell in the living world
and their membrane topology. The upper
ones show the contrasting ancestral
microtubular cytoskeleton (ciliary
roots, in red) of unikonts (a cone of
single microtubules attaching the
single centriole to the nucleus, blue)
and bikonts (two bands of microtubules
attached to the posterior centriole and
an anterior fan of microtubules
attached to the anterior centriole).
The lower ones show the single plasma
membrane of unibacteria (posibacteria
plus archaebacteria), which were
ancestral to eukaryotes and the double
envelope of negibacteria, which were
ancestral to mitochondria and
chloroplasts (which retained the outer
membrane, red). COPYRIGHTED
source: http://aob.oxfordjournals.org/co
ntent/95/1/147/F2.large.jpg
[2] Figure 3: Fig. 3. Schematic
representation of the evolutionary
relationships and divergence times for
the red, green, glaucophyte, and
chromist algae. These photosynthetic
groups are outgroup-rooted with the
Opisthokonta which putatively
ancestrally lacked a plastid. The
branches on which the cyanobacterial
(CB) primary and red algal chromist
secondary endosymbioses occurred are
shown Figure 3 from: Yoon, Hwan Su
et al. “A Molecular Timeline for the
Origin of Photosynthetic Eukaryotes.”
Molecular Biology and Evolution 21.5
(2004): 809 -818.
Print. http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/co
ntent/21/5/809.abstract COPYRIGHTED
source: http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/co
ntent/21/5/809/F3.large.jpg
eukaryote. Gamete (or spore) cells and
somatic cells. Unlike gamete cells,
somatic cells are asexual (non-fusing),
and are not omnipotent. Start of death
by aging.
Cell differentiation is how cells in a
multicellular organism become
specialized to perform specific
functions in a variety of tissues and
organs.
[1] Volvoxcell differentiation. The
pathways leading to germ cells or
somatic cells are controlled by genes
that cause cells to follow one or the
other fate. Mutations can prevent the
formation of one of these lineages.
http://www.devbio.com/chap02/link0204.sh
tml Although all the volvocaceans,
like their unicellular relative
Chlamydomonas, reproduce predominantly
by asexual means, they are also capable
of sexual reproduction, which involves
the production and fusion of haploid
gametes. In many species of
Chlamydomonas, including the one
illustrated in Figure 2.10, sexual
reproduction is isogamous (“the same
gametes”), since the haploid gametes
that meet are similar in size,
structure, and motility. However, in
other species of Chlamydomonas—as
well as many species of colonial
volvocaceans—swimming gametes of very
different sizes are produced by the
different mating types. This pattern is
called heterogamy (“different
gametes”). But the larger
volvocaceans have evolved a specialized
form of heterogamy, called oogamy,
which involves the production of large,
relatively immotile eggs by one mating
type and small, motile sperm by the
other (see Sidelights and
Speculations) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/book
s/NBK10031/bin/ch2f12.jpg
[2] Description English: Four
Different Species of Volvocales Algae.
(A) Gonium pectorale, (B) Eudorina
elegans, (C) Pleodorina californica,
and (D) Volvox carteri. These are
unicellular organisms that live in
colonies and have both large and small
gametes. Date Published: June 15,
2004 Source Whitfield J:
Everything You Always Wanted to Know
about Sexes. PLoS Biol 2/6/2004: e183.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.0
020183 Author Photo courtesy of
Aurora M. Nedelcu, from the Volvocales
Information Project
(http://www.unbf.ca/vip/index.htm). Per
mission (Reusing this file) See
below. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c5/Volvocales.png
{KrOM-aL-VEO-leTS} (ancestor of
Chromista {Cryptophytes, Haptophytes,
and Stramenopiles {STro-meN-o-Pi-lEZ}}
and Alveolates {aL-VEO-leTS}).
[1] S. Blair Hedges and Sudhir Kumar,
''The TimeTree of Life'', 2009,
p117-118. http://www.timetree.org/book.
php COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.timetree.org/book.php
[2] Hackett JD, Yoon HS, Butterfield
NJ, Sanderson MJ, Bhattacharya D,
''Plastid endosymbiosis: Sources and
timing of the major events.'', in:
Falkowski P, Knoll A, editors.
''Evolution of primary producers in the
sea.'', Elsevier; 2007, p120.
COPYRIGHTED
source: Hackett JD, Yoon HS,
Butterfield NJ, Sanderson MJ,
Bhattacharya D, "Plastid endosymbiosis:
Sources and timing of the major
events.", in: Falkowski P, Knoll A,
editors. "Evolution of primary
producers in the sea.", Elsevier; 2007,
p120.
and eukaryote filamentous
multicellularity: Rhodophyta (red
algae) fossils named "Bangiomorpha
pubescens".
arctic Canada
[1] Figure 4 from: Science 1990 vol
250 Butterfield N. J. A. H. Knoll K.
Swett 1990 A bangiophyte red alga from
the Proterozoic of Arctic Canada.
Science 250: 104-107
http://www.jstor.org/stable/2877905
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2877
905
[2] Figure 2 from: Science 1990 vol
250 Butterfield N. J. A. H. Knoll K.
Swett 1990 A bangiophyte red alga from
the Proterozoic of Arctic Canada.
Science 250: 104-107
http://www.jstor.org/stable/2877905
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2877
905
occurs in both haploid and diploid life
stages).
[1] Drawn by self for Biological life
cycle Based on Freeman & Worth's
Biology of Plants (p. 171). GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Sporic_meiosis.png
[2] Figure 23.1.Plants have
haplodiplontic life cycles that involve
mitotic divisions (resulting in
multicellularity) in both the haploid
and diploid generations (paths A and
D). Most animals are diplontic and
undergo mitosis only in the diploid
generation (paths B and D).
Multicellular organisms with haplontic
life cycles follow paths A and C.
COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://zygote.swarthmore.edu/pla
ntfig1.gif
shows the protist and plant line
separating here at 1,230 mybn (first
plant).
Kingdom.
[1] Microsporidia. Image from Sterling
Parasitology Microsporidia
Research. UNKNOWN
source: http://microbewiki.kenyon.edu/im
ages/3/37/Micro2.jpg
[2] Penicillium [t Note: Penecillium
is a multicellular fungi.] UNKNOWN
source: http://www.mold-help.org/pages/i
mages/Penicillium.jpg
trails.
The trace-like fossils suggest the
presence of vermiform (the long, thin,
cylindrical shape of a worm),
mucus-producing, motile organisms.
Australia
[1] The oldest evidence of
multicellular animals to
date? COPYRIGHTED
source: http://news.bbc.co.uk/olmedia/19
75000/images/_1977935_worm300.jpg
[2] Figure 2 Trace-like fossils,
locality Barnett Peak, positive
hyporelief, UWA 114336. (A, C, and E)
Overviews of surfaces with
double-ridged trails. There is
low-angle lighting from the left, and
the samples are shown at the same
magnification. (B, D, and F) Drawings
showing the extent of ridges (blue).
Fractures and microfaults on the
surface are indicated in red, specimens
with a U-shaped ending are marked with
the letters “u” and “x,” and
arrows point to instances of apparent
crosscutting [black U-shaped ending
“x” in (F) is in concave
preservation]. (G and H) Close-ups of
specimens [compare positions in (B) and
(F)] with U-shaped and open expanding
ends. The specimens are coated with
ammonium chloride, and there is
low-angle lighting from the left.
Figure 2 from: Rasmussen, Birger et
al. “Discoidal Impressions and
Trace-Like Fossils More Than 1200
Million Years Old.” Science 296.5570
(2002): 1112 -1115.
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/296/
5570/1112.full COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/296/5570/1112/F2.large.jpg
{KriPTuFITu} (Cryptomonads
{KRiPToMunaDZ}).
[1] Fig. 1. A consensus phylogeny of
eukaryotes. The vast majority of
characterized eukaryotes, with the
notable exception of major subgroups of
amoebae, can now be assigned to one of
eight major groups. Opisthokonts (basal
flagellum) have a single basal
flagellum on reproductive cells and
flat mitochondrial cristae (most
eukaryotes have tubular ones).
Eukaryotic photosynthesis originated in
Plants; theirs are the only plastids
with just two outer membranes.
Heterokonts (different flagellae) have
a unique flagellum decorated with
hollow tripartite hairs (stramenopiles)
and, usually, a second plain one.
Cercozoans are amoebae with filose
pseudopodia, often living with in tests
(hard outer shells), some very
elaborate (foraminiferans). Amoebozoa
are mostly naked amoebae (lacking
tests), often with lobose pseudopodia
for at least part of their life cycle.
Alveolates have systems of cortical
alveoli directly beneath their plasma
membranes. Discicristates have discoid
mitochondrial cristae and, in some
cases, a deep (excavated) ventral
feeding groove. Amitochondrial
excavates lack substantial molecular
phylogenetic support, but most have an
excavated ventral feeding groove, and
all lack mitochondria. The tree shown
is based on a consensus of molecular
(1-4) and ultrastructural (16, 17) data
and includes a rough indication of new
ciPCR ''taxa'' (broken black lines)
(7-11). An asterisk preceding the taxon
name indicates probable paraphyletic
group COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/co
ntent/full/300/5626/1703
[2] Figure 1. Phylogenetic hypothesis
of the eukaryotic lineage based on
ultrastructural and molecular data.
Organisms are divided into three main
groups distinguished by mitochondrial
cristal shape (either discoidal,
flattened or tubular). Unbroken lines
indicate phylogenetic relationships
that are firmly supported by available
data; broken lines indicate
uncertainties in phylogenetic
placement, resolution of which will
require additional data. Color coding
of organismal genus names indicates
mitochondrial genomes that have been
completely (Table 1), almost completely
(Jakoba, Naegleria and
Thraustochytrium) or partially (*)
sequenced by the OGMP (red), the FMGP
(black) or other groups (green). Names
in blue indicate those species whose
mtDNAs are currently being sequenced by
the OGMP or are future candidates for
complete sequencing. Amitochondriate
retortamonads are positioned at the
base of the tree, with broken arrows
denoting the endosymbiotic origin(s) of
mitochondria from a Rickettsia-like
eubacterium. Macrophar.,
Macropharyngomonas. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nar.oxfordjournals.org/cg
i/content/full/26/4/865
(ancestor of all Ciliates,
Apicomplexans, and Dinoflagellates
{DInOFlaJeleTS}).
Three protist phyla (ciliates,
apicomplexans, and dinoflaggellates)
have an alveolar membrane system, which
comprises flattened membrane-bound sacs
(alveoli) lying beneath the outer cell
membrane. This system and molecular
sequence comparisons indicate that
these three protist phyla are closely
related to each other.
[1]
Unknown http://www.genome.gov/Images/pr
ess_photos/highres/85-300.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Oxytricha_trifa
llax.jpg/1024px-Oxytricha_trifallax.jpg
[2] Description English: Unknown
species of cilliate in the last stages
of mitosis (cytokinesis), with cleavage
furrow visible. Date Source
Own work Author
TheAlphaWolf CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/55/Unk.cilliate.jpg
Phylum Glaucophyta evolving now.
Some people
categorize Glaucophyta in the kingdom
Plantae instead of Protists, and label
glaucophyta the most ancient living
plants.
The glaucophytes, also referred to as
glaucocystophytes or glaucocystids, are
a tiny group of freshwater algae. They
are distinguished mainly by the
presence of cyanelles, primitive
chloroplasts which closely resemble
cyanobacteria.
[1] ? COPYRIGHTED
source: http://protist.i.hosei.ac.jp/PDB
3/PCD3711/htmls/86.html
[2] ? COPYRIGHTED
source: http://protist.i.hosei.ac.jp/PDB
/Images/Others/Glaucocystis/
according to genetic comparison. Green
Algae is composed of the two Phlya
Chlorophyta (volvox, sea lettuce) and
Charophyta (Spirogyra).
The first land plants most likely
evolved from green algae.
Early possible Green Algae fossil cysts
date back to 1.2 billion years ago.
[1] Micrograph of Volvox aureus.
Copyright held by Dr. Ralf Wagner,
uploaded to German Wikipedia under
GFDL. Permission is granted to copy,
distribute and/or modify this document
under the terms of the GNU Free
Documentation License, Version 1.2 or
any later version published by the Free
Software Foundation; with no Invariant
Sections, no Front-Cover Texts, and no
Back-Cover Texts. Subject to
disclaimers.
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vol
vox
[2] Photo of green algal growth
(Enteromorpha sp.) on rocky areas of
the ocean intertidal shore, indicating
a nearby nutrient source (in this case
land runoff). Photographed by Eric
Guinther near Kahuku, O'ahu,
Hawai'i. GFDL Permission is granted
to copy, distribute and/or modify this
document under the terms of the GNU
Free Documentation License, Version 1.2
or any later version published by the
Free Software Foundation; with no
Invariant Sections, no Front-Cover
Texts, and no Back-Cover Texts Subject
to disclaimers
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Intertidal_greenalgae.jpg
"Microsporidia".
Microsporidia are obligate
intracellular parasites of eukaryotes.
[1] Sporoblast of the Microsporidium
Fibrillanosema crangonycis. Electron
micrograph taken by Leon White. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Fibrillanosema_spore.jpg
[2] Spironema
multiciliatum Spironema:
Octosporoblastic sporogony producing
horseshoe-shaped monokaryotic spores in
sporophorous vesicles; monomorphic,
diplokaryotic and monokaryotic;
merogony - last generation merozoites
are diplokaryotic; sporogony - initial
division of the sporont nuclei is
meiotic as indicated by the occurrence
of synaptonemal complexes; spores are
horse-shoe-shaped, with swollen ends in
T. variabilis and have one elongate
nucleus; exospore with three layers,
endospore is of medium thickness;
polaroplast composed of two lamellar
parts, an anterior part of closely
packed lamellae and a posterior part of
wider compartments; polar tube is
isofilar and forms, in the posterior
quarter of the spore, 3-4 coils in a
single rank (T. variabilis) or 8-10
coils in a single rank (T. chironomi);
type species Toxoglugea vibrio in
adipose tissue of larvae of Ceratopogon
sp. (Diptera, Ceratopogonidae).
Spironema (spire-oh-knee-ma)
multiciliatum Klebs, 1893. Cells are
lanceolate, relatively flattened and
flexible. The cells have a spiral
groove, long kinetics and a tail, which
tapers posteriorly, and are about 15 -
21 microns without the tail. The
nucleus is located anteriorly or near
the centre of the cell. When the cells
are squashed, the cells are more
flexible. Food materials are seen under
the cell surface. Rarely observed.
This picture was taken by Won Je Lee
using conventional photographic film
using a Zeiss Axiophot microscope of
material collected in marine sediments
of Botany Bay (Sydney, Australia). The
image description refers to material
from Botany Bay. NONCOMMERCIAL USE
source: http://microscope.mbl.edu/script
s/microscope.php?func=imgDetail&imageID=
3928
of Dinoflagellates.
[1] Part of figure 2 from: Moldowan,
J. Michael et al. “Chemostratigraphic
reconstruction of biofacies: Molecular
evidence linking cyst-forming
dinoflagellates with pre-Triassic
ancestors.” Geology 24.2 (1996): 159
-162.
http://geology.geoscienceworld.org/con
tent/24/2/159.abstract
AND http://geology.gsapubs.org/content/
24/2/159.full.pdf COPYRIGHTED
source: http://geology.gsapubs.org/conte
nt/24/2/159.full.pdf
{DiSKIKriSTATS}, ancestor of protists
which have mitochondria with discoidal
shaped cristae (includes euglenids,
leishmanias {lEsmaNEuZ}, trypanosomes
{TriPaNiSOMZ}, kinetoplastids
{KiNeTuPlaSTiDZ}, and acrasid {oKrASiD}
slime molds).
Some euglenids exhibit colonialism and
have a cell covering ("pellicle").
[1] euglena
source: http://www.fcps.k12.va.us/Stratf
ordLandingES/Ecology/mpages/euglena.htm
[2] euglena
source: http://protist.i.hosei.ac.jp/PDB
/Images/Mastigophora/Euglena/genus1L.jpg
three-dimensional response to light.
Eyes evolve at least eight times
independently in eukaryotes.
The earliest eye probably evolves from
a plastid. The first proto eye is a
light sensitive area in a unicellular
eukaryote.
Eukaryotes are the first organisms to
evolve the ability to follow light
direction in three dimensions in open
water.
[1] Adapted from: Euglena is a
photosynthetic euglenoid with at least
150 described species. The cells are
cylindrical with a rounded anterior and
tapered posterior. The chloroplasts are
well-developed, bright green, and
sometimes have pyrenoids. ... Euglena
is a photosynthetic euglenoid with at
least 150 described species. The cells
are cylindrical with a rounded anterior
and tapered posterior. The chloroplasts
are well-developed, bright green, and
sometimes have pyrenoids. They are
often discoidal in shape but can also
be ovate, lobate, elongate, U-shaped,
or ribbon-shaped. Some researchers use
the structure and position of the
chloroplasts to divide the group into
three subgenera. Even though they are
able to photosynthesize, Euglena cells
also have a phagotrophic ingestion
apparatus. Euglena has one long,
protruding flagellum and a shorter
flagellum that is not usually
visible. The euglenoids can glide
and swim using their flagella, or can
ooze along a substrate with an
undulating, shape-changing, contraction
motion called metaboly. The cytoplasm
of Euglena and other euglenoids
contains many paramylon starch storage
granules. The euglenoid cells are
covered by a pellicle composed of
ribbonlike, woven strips of
proteinaceous material that cover the
cell in a helical arrangement from apex
to posterior. Freshwater euglenoids
have a contractile vacuole. Euglenoids
sense light using a red pigmented
eyespot or stigma and the paraflagellar
body located at the base of the
emergent flagella. The cytoplasm of
Euglena and other euglenoids contains
many paramylon starch storage granules.
The euglenoid cells are covered by a
pellicle composed of ribbonlike, woven
strips of proteinaceous material that
cover the cell in a helical arrangement
from apex to posterior. Freshwater
euglenoids have a contractile vacuole.
Euglenoids sense light using a red
pigmented eyespot or stigma and the
paraflagellar body located at the base
of the emergent flagella. UNKNOWN
source: http://silicasecchidisk.conncoll
.edu/Pics/Other%20Algae/Other_jpegs/Eugl
ena_Key225.jpg
[2] Figure 1. The distribution of
three-dimensional phototaxis in the
tree of eukaryotes. Red arrows indicate
the likely point of origin of
phototaxis in a given group. Question
marks indicate uncertainties regarding
independent or common origin. Figure
1 from: Jékely, Gáspár. ''Evolution
of phototaxis.'' Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society B:
Biological Sciences 364 (October
2009):
2795–2808. http://rstb.royalsocietypu
blishing.org/content/364/1531/2795.short
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://rstb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/364/1531/2795/F1.large.jp
g
colony) evolves for the first time in
Eukaryotes.
Colonialism may evolve independently in
more than once in protists.
[1] [t Note that this Chrysophytes
{golden algae} do not evolve
genetically until much later - but I
can't find colonial euglinas or
kinetoplasts- dinobryon look very
similar to euglenas however, even with
a red eyespot- which implies a close
relation.] [1] Dinobryon, a colony of
Chrysophytes showing flagella and red
eyespots UNKNOWN
source: http://www.microscopy-uk.org.uk/
mag//imagsmall/Dinobryonb.jpg
[2] [t Note that this CHrysophytes
{golden algae} do not evolve
genetically until much later - but I
can't find colonial euglinas or
kinetoplasts] [2] golden algae colony
(synura) Scanning EM showing the
colony of cells covered with scales By
Joel Mancuso UNKNOWN
source: http://farm1.staticflickr.com/38
/110623789_7d189c795b_b.jpg
{STro-meN-o-Pi-lEZ} (also called
Heterokonts) (ancestor of all brown and
golden algae, diatoms, and oomycota
{Ou-mI-KO-Tu)).
The strameopiles consist of some 9,000
species including diatoms, brown and
golden algae (the Chrysophytes), some
heterotrophic flagellates,
labyrinthulids (slime nets), and
Oomycetes and Hyphochytridiomycetes
(formerly classified as fungi). A few
stramenopiles form complex, rigid
colonies and may reach extremely large
sizes. It may be difficult to imagine
that diatoms and kelp are closely
related. There similarity is based on
the fact that that almost all have
unique, complex, three-part tubular
hairs on the flagella at some stage in
the life cycle. The name Stramenopiles
(Latin stamen, "straw"; pilius "hair")
refers to the appearance of these
hairs.
Stramenopiles are found in a variety of
habitats. Freshwater and marine
plankton are rich in diatoms and
chrysophytes, and they can also occur
in moist soils, sea ice, snow and
glaciers. Stramenopiles have even been
found living in clouds in the
atmosphere. Heterotrophic free-living
stramenopiles are also found in marine,
estuarine, and freshwater habitats. A
few are symbiotic on algae in marine or
stuarine environments. Many produce
calcite or silicon scales, shells,
cysts, or test, which are preserved in
the fossil record. The oldest of these
fossils are from the
Cambrian/Precambrian boundary about 550
million years ago.
[1] Phylum Stramenopiles COPYRIGHTED
source: Brusca and Brusca,
"Invertebrates", Second Edition, 2003,
p153-155.
[2] S. Blair Hedges and Sudhir Kumar,
''The TimeTree of Life'', 2009,
p117-118. http://www.timetree.org/book.
php COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.timetree.org/book.php
predominantly diploid, mitosis in the
haploid phase does not occur.
[1] Gametic Meiosis. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Gametic_meiosis.png
[2] Mark Kirkpatrick, ''The evolution
of haploid-diploid life cycles'', 1994,
p10. http://books.google.com/books?id=X
sgoLnXLIswC&pg=PA10 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=XsgoLnXLIswC&pg=PA10
Coccolithophores {KOK-o-lit-O-FORZ}.
Fossils of this group date back into
the Jurassic (201-145 my), where they
first become abundant.
[1] Fig. 1. A consensus phylogeny of
eukaryotes. The vast majority of
characterized eukaryotes, with the
notable exception of major subgroups of
amoebae, can now be assigned to one of
eight major groups. Opisthokonts (basal
flagellum) have a single basal
flagellum on reproductive cells and
flat mitochondrial cristae (most
eukaryotes have tubular ones).
Eukaryotic photosynthesis originated in
Plants; theirs are the only plastids
with just two outer membranes.
Heterokonts (different flagellae) have
a unique flagellum decorated with
hollow tripartite hairs (stramenopiles)
and, usually, a second plain one.
Cercozoans are amoebae with filose
pseudopodia, often living with in tests
(hard outer shells), some very
elaborate (foraminiferans). Amoebozoa
are mostly naked amoebae (lacking
tests), often with lobose pseudopodia
for at least part of their life cycle.
Alveolates have systems of cortical
alveoli directly beneath their plasma
membranes. Discicristates have discoid
mitochondrial cristae and, in some
cases, a deep (excavated) ventral
feeding groove. Amitochondrial
excavates lack substantial molecular
phylogenetic support, but most have an
excavated ventral feeding groove, and
all lack mitochondria. The tree shown
is based on a consensus of molecular
(1-4) and ultrastructural (16, 17) data
and includes a rough indication of new
ciPCR ''taxa'' (broken black lines)
(7-11). An asterisk preceding the taxon
name indicates probable paraphyletic
group
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/co
ntent/full/300/5626/1703
[2] Emiliania huxleyi, a
coccolithophore. Photo courtesy Dr.
Markus Geisen - photographer, and The
Natural History Museum. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Emiliania_huxleyi_3.jpg
(Dinoflagellates {DI-nO-Fla-Je-leTS}).
Dinoflagellates are single-celled,
aquatic organisms that have two
dissimilar flagella. Most are
microscopic and marine. The group is an
important link in the food chain.
Dinoflagellates also "bloom" which
results in the red tides and can
produce part of the luminescence
sometimes seen in the sea.
Dinoflagellates are the only group
currently known to have tertiary
plastids (when an alga containing a
plastid of secondary endosymbiotic
origin, for example a chromist, is
engulfed and reduced to a
photosynthetic organelle).
[1] dino4: Dinoflagellates have an
armor shell made of plates of cellulose
(the same material as in paper or a
cotton shirt)
source: dino4=http://www.mbari.org/staff
/oreilly/schoolPresentation/oceancolor/d
inoflagellates.html
[2] Fig. 1. A consensus phylogeny of
eukaryotes. The vast majority of
characterized eukaryotes, with the
notable exception of major subgroups of
amoebae, can now be assigned to one of
eight major groups. Opisthokonts (basal
flagellum) have a single basal
flagellum on reproductive cells and
flat mitochondrial cristae (most
eukaryotes have tubular ones).
Eukaryotic photosynthesis originated in
Plants; theirs are the only plastids
with just two outer membranes.
Heterokonts (different flagellae) have
a unique flagellum decorated with
hollow tripartite hairs (stramenopiles)
and, usually, a second plain one.
Cercozoans are amoebae with filose
pseudopodia, often living with in tests
(hard outer shells), some very
elaborate (foraminiferans). Amoebozoa
are mostly naked amoebae (lacking
tests), often with lobose pseudopodia
for at least part of their life cycle.
Alveolates have systems of cortical
alveoli directly beneath their plasma
membranes. Discicristates have discoid
mitochondrial cristae and, in some
cases, a deep (excavated) ventral
feeding groove. Amitochondrial
excavates lack substantial molecular
phylogenetic support, but most have an
excavated ventral feeding groove, and
all lack mitochondria. The tree shown
is based on a consensus of molecular
(1-4) and ultrastructural (16, 17) data
and includes a rough indication of new
ciPCR ''taxa'' (broken black lines)
(7-11). An asterisk preceding the taxon
name indicates probable paraphyletic
group COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/co
ntent/full/300/5626/1703
fossil a xanthophyte (or yellow-green
algae): "Palaeovaucheria".
[1] [t Apparently this is not
Paleovaucheria (f) Segmentothallus
asperus from the Lakhanda succession, a
large uniseriate filament; From: A.H
Knoll, E.J Javaux, D Hewitt, and P
Cohen, ''Eukaryotic organisms in
Proterozoic oceans'', Phil. Trans. R.
Soc. B June 29, 2006 361 (1470)
1023-1038;
doi:10.1098/rstb.2006.1843 http://rstb.
royalsocietypublishing.org/citmgr?gca=ro
yptb;361/1470/1023 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://rstb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/361/1470/1023/F3.large.jp
g
[2] Vaucheria has siphonaceous,
coenocytic filaments that can form
feltlike mats, earning it the nickname
''water felt''. Cytokinesis does not
usually follow mitosis, so the cells
retain multiple nuclei. The thallus has
cross walls only where gametes or
zoospores were produced, and may be
branched. The cytoplasm of Vaucheria
is pushed to the cell periphery by
large vacuoles, and contains many
nuclei and discoid plastids. The
plastids can change their orientation
in response to changes in light levels.
The large cells rely on cytoplasmic
streaming to move materials around as
needed. Researchers have found
fossils in one billion- year-old
Siberian deposits that are very similar
to Vaucheria, indicating that the genus
has been evolving for quite some time.
Over 70 species are known to
science. UNKNOWN
source: http://silicasecchidisk.conncoll
.edu/Pics/Other%20Algae/Other_jpegs/Vauc
heria_Key252.jpg
shows the plant and fungi line
separating here at 1,000 mybn (first
fungi).
{KI-TriDEO-mI-KO-Tu) (includes all
Chytridiomycetes
{KI-TriDEO-mI-SE-TEZ})).
The chytrids are primitive fungi and
are mostly saprobic (feed on dead
species, degrading chitin and keratin).
Many chytrids are aquatic (mostly found
in freshwater).
[1] Chytrids (Chytridiomycota): The
Primitive Fungi These fungi are
mostly aquatic, are notable for having
a flagella on the cells (a flagella is
a tail, somewhat like a tail on a sperm
or a pollywog), and are thought to be
the most primitive type of
fungi. actual photo comes
from: http://www.csupomona.edu/~jcclark
/classes/bot125/resource/graphics/chy_al
l_sph.html
source: http://www.davidlnelson.md/Cazad
ero/Fungi.htm
[2] Chytridiomycota - Blastocladiales
- zoospore of Allomyces (phase contrast
illumination) X 2000
source: http://www.mycolog.com/chapter2b
.htm
{me-ZO-mI-SE-TO-ZO-u} (also called
DRIPS).
Mesomycetozoea are in the protist
Phylum Choanozoa (which includes
Choanoflagellates). This phylum
contains the first protozoans
(Choanoflagellates), thought to be the
ancestor of sponges.
[1] Ichthyophonus, a fungus-like
protistan that occurs in high
prevalence in Pacific Ocean perch
(Sebastes aultus) and yellowtail
rockfish (Sebastes flavedus). Note the
parasite forms branching hyphae-like
structures. Ichthyophonus hoferi has
caused massive mortalities in herring
in the Atlantic ocean, and has recently
been reported to cause disease in wild
Pacific herring from Washington through
Alaska. COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://oregonstate.edu/dept/salm
on/projects/images/16Ichthyophonus.jpg
[2] Microscopic appearence of the
organism is dependent on its stage of
development. The stages include (1)
spore at ''resting'' stage, (2)
germinating spore, (3) hyphal
stage. It is believed that there are
two forms of Ichthyophonus, both
belonging to one genus. One of them is
known as the ''salmon'' form, occuring
in freshwater and cold-preferring sea
fishes: this form is characterized by
its ability to produce long tubulose
germ hyphae. The other is called the
''aquarium fish'' form, typical of the
tropical freshwater fishes. This form
is completely devoid of hyphae.
Developmental cycle of Ichthyophonus
hoferi: 1-5 - development of
''daughter'' spores, 7-11 - development
of resting spore from the ''daughter''
spore, 12-19 - development of resting
spore by fragmentation. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.fao.org/docrep/field/
003/AC160E/AC160E02.htm
(includes Oomycetes, Water molds).
[1] Figure 2 from: Sandra L. Baldauf,
A. J. Roger, I. Wenk-Siefert, W. F.
Doolittle, ''A Kingdom-Level Phylogeny
of Eukaryotes Based on Combined Protein
Data'', Science, Vol 290, num 5493, p
972, (2000).
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/290/
5493/972.full Figure 2 Single-gene
phylogenies support subsets of the
combined protein tree. (A) A summary of
the tree in Fig. 1is shown with
supergroups indicated beside brackets
to the right. Multi-taxon represented
clusters are given as triangles, with
height proportional to number of taxa
and width proportional to averaged
overall branch length (1) compensated
for missing data (47). (B) Published
support for the numbered nodes in (A)
is shown for commonly used molecular
phylogenetic markers grouped as (a)
ribosomal RNAs, (b) proteins not used
in the current analysis, (c) proteins
used in the current analysis, and (d)
the combined data (Fig. 1). These
markers are, from left to right, SSU
[SSU rRNA (1–4)], LSU [LSU rRNA
(19)], LSU+SSU [combined LSU and SSU
rRNA (48)], EF-2 (10), V/A-ATPases
[vacuolar ATPases (49)], HSP70-cy
[cytosolic 70-kD heat shock protein
(50)], mito [combined mitochondrial
proteins (51)], RPB1 (52), actin (8,
16, 53), α-tubulin (8, 54), β-tubulin
(8, 54), EF-1α (15, 20), and combined
(Fig. 1). Rejected nodes are indicated
in pink and accepted nodes in green,
with checked circles indicating BP < 70% and solid circles indicating BP >
70%. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/290/5493/972/F2.large.jpg
[2] Fig. 1. A consensus phylogeny of
eukaryotes. The vast majority of
characterized eukaryotes, with the
notable exception of major subgroups of
amoebae, can now be assigned to one of
eight major groups. Opisthokonts (basal
flagellum) have a single basal
flagellum on reproductive cells and
flat mitochondrial cristae (most
eukaryotes have tubular ones).
Eukaryotic photosynthesis originated in
Plants; theirs are the only plastids
with just two outer membranes.
Heterokonts (different flagellae) have
a unique flagellum decorated with
hollow tripartite hairs (stramenopiles)
and, usually, a second plain one.
Cercozoans are amoebae with filose
pseudopodia, often living with in tests
(hard outer shells), some very
elaborate (foraminiferans). Amoebozoa
are mostly naked amoebae (lacking
tests), often with lobose pseudopodia
for at least part of their life cycle.
Alveolates have systems of cortical
alveoli directly beneath their plasma
membranes. Discicristates have discoid
mitochondrial cristae and, in some
cases, a deep (excavated) ventral
feeding groove. Amitochondrial
excavates lack substantial molecular
phylogenetic support, but most have an
excavated ventral feeding groove, and
all lack mitochondria. The tree shown
is based on a consensus of molecular
(1-4) and ultrastructural (16, 17) data
and includes a rough indication of new
ciPCR ''taxa'' (broken black lines)
(7-11). An asterisk preceding the taxon
name indicates probable paraphyletic
group COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/co
ntent/full/300/5626/1703
shows the fungi and pseudocoeles lines
separating here at 965 mybn (first
pseudocoel and first animal).
"Choanoflagellates" and "Acanthoecida"
evolve.
Choanoflagellates are the
closest relatives to the animals and
may be direct ancestors of sponges.
There are about 140 species of
choanoflagellates. Some are
free-swimmingpropelling themselves with
a flagellum. Others are attached by a
stalk, sometimes with several together
in a colony.
[1] Choanoflagellate single cell
(thecate) UNKNOWN
source: http://behance.vo.llnwd.net/prof
iles22/483113/projects/1558429/6ea555ab5
457e21432def0f2e6b83fe3.jpg
[2] Salpingoeca: Cells solitary or
colonial with a distinct and firm
sheath or theca usually as a cup either
sessile or with a pedicel; theca
colourless or amber; contractile
vacuoles posterior in freshwater
specie; in freshwater, brackish, and
marine habitats. Record information:
Salpingoeca (sal-ping-go-eek-a), a
collar flagellate (choanoflagellate) -
all of which have a single anterior
flagellum surrounded by a collar of
very fine pseudopodia (in cross-section
the collar seems like two arms, one on
either side of the flagellum). The
flagellum beats drawing water through
the collar and bacteria and other small
particles are trapped and then
ingested. Believed to be the source
group of the sponges and the metazoa.
Salpingoeca has an organic lorica.
Phase contrast. This picture was
taken by David Patterson, Linda Amaral
Zettler and Virginia Edgcomb of
material from the salt marsh at Little
Sippewissett (Massachusetts, USA) in
Autumn, 2000 and in Spring and summer,
2001. NONCOMMERCIAL USE
source: http://microscope.mbl.edu/script
s/microscope.php?func=imgDetail&imageID=
746
(ancestor of all Radiolaria,
Foraminifera and Cercozoa).
The Rhizaria are an assemblage, or
supergroup, of eukaryotes comprising
mostly amoeboid protists, including
‘skeleton’-forming types such as
the foraminiferans and radiolarians().
Some authorities now include Rhizaria
in a broader grouping – the RAS (or
SAR) group – with the alveolates and
stramenopiles.
[1] Figure : Maximum likelihood
phylogeny of Rhizaria inferred from SSU
rRNA gene sequences using the GTR+G+I
model of evolution. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.unige.ch/sciences/bio
logie/biani/msg/Amoeboids/Rhizaria_large
.jpg
[2] Figure 1 from: Keeling, Patrick
J. et al. “The tree of eukaryotes.”
Trends in Ecology & Evolution 20.12
(2005):
670-676. http://www.sciencedirect.com/s
cience/article/pii/S0169534705003046
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/cac
he/MiamiImageURL/1-s2.0-S016953470500304
6-gr1.jpg/0?wchp=dGLbVBA-zSkWz
moving Protist. This allows larger free
moving organisms to evolve.
This multicellularity is thought to be
independently evolved, and not related
to the filamentous multicellularity of
prokaryotes like cyanobacteria, and
eukaryotes like algae.
[1] Sponge showing several choanocyte
chambers UNKNOWN
source: http://behance.vo.llnwd.net/prof
iles22/483113/projects/1558429/43a2a4c7e
127f66b7090ed679a8da30a.jpg
[2] Combination of: Saepicula and
Sphaeroeca NONCOMMERCIAL USE
source: http://microscope.mbl.edu/script
s/microscope.php?func=imgDetail&imageID=
3229
metazoan, sponges (Porifera). Metazoans
are multicellular and have
differentiation (their cells perform
different functions). There are only
three major kinds of metazoans:
sponges, cnidarians, and bilaterians
(which include all insects and
vertebrates).
Sponges have different cell types:
cells that form a body wall, cells that
secrete the skeleton, contractile
cells, cells that digest food, and
other kinds of cell types.
All sponge cells are totipotent and so
are capable of regrowing a new sponge.
Some sponges can live for over 1000
years.
[1] Summary Description English:
Marine sponge. Color adjusted (but not
color accurate) underwater photograph
taken by Dlloyd using a digital camera
at a depth of approximately 100 feet in
Cayman. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/62/SpongeColorCorrect.jp
g
[2]
source: http://www.museums.org.za/bio/me
tazoa.htm
molds, pin molds).
[1] Figure 2. Zygomycota A: sporangia
of Mucor sp. B: whorl of sporangia of
Absidia sp. C: zygospore of
Zygorhynchus sp. D: sporangiophore and
sporangiola of Cunninghamella sp.
source: http://www.botany.utoronto.ca/Re
searchLabs/MallochLab/Malloch/Moulds/Cla
ssification.html
[2] Figure 3. Syncephalis, a member of
the Zygomycota parasitic on other
Zygomycota
source: http://www.botany.utoronto.ca/Re
searchLabs/MallochLab/Malloch/Moulds/Cla
ssification.html
{TeSTiS}/testicle) evolves in a sponge.
In sponges sperm are contained in
spermatic cysts, which are choanocyte
chambers transformed by
spermatogenesis, but ova are
distributed throughout the mesohyl.
(It's interesting how similar the
sponge emitting sperm looks like the
animal penis emitting sperm. One view
is that the sperm and ovum of
multicellular animals are like protists
that grew material around them. That
metazoans, including humans, evolved
from the protist ovum and sperm out. So
in this sense, the center of evolution
is really the gonad - all later
appendages - muscle, nervous, circular
system are all accessories built around
those ancient protists, the animal
gamete. So the early evolution of the
gonad before most other organs, may be
like a first added barrier of
protection for the gamete cells.)
[1] Oocyte (female egg) release from
sponge, sperm release from sponge,
FIgure from: D. T. Anderson,
''Invertebrate Zoology'', Oxford
University Press, Second Edition,
2001. COPYRIGHTED
source: D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001.
[2] Combination of image from: Brusca
and Brusca, ''Invertebrates'', Second
Edition, 2003,
http://www.oceanicresearch.org/sponges
.html and D. T. Anderson,
''Invertebrate Zoology'', Oxford
University Press, Second Edition,
2001. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.museums.org.za/bio/me
tazoa.htm
(ocean protists, many with silica
shells).
[1] FIG. 2. The tree of life based on
molecular, ultrastructural and
palaeontological evidence. Contrary to
widespread assumptions, the root is
among the eubacteria, probably within
the double-enveloped Negibacteria, not
between eubacteria and archaebacteria
(Cavalier-Smith, 2002b); it may lie
between Eobacteria and other
Negibacteria (Cavalier-Smith, 2002b).
The position of the eukaryotic root has
been nearly as controversial, but is
less hard to establish: it probably
lies between unikonts and bikonts (Lang
et al., 2002; Stechmann and
Cavalier-Smith, 2002, 2003). For
clarity the basal eukaryotic kingdom
Protozoa is not labelled; it comprises
four major groups (alveolates, cabozoa,
Amoebozoa and Choanozoa) plus the small
bikont phylum Apusozoa of unclear
precise position; whether Heliozoa are
protozoa as shown or chromists is
uncertain (Cavalier-Smith, 2003b).
Symbiogenetic cell enslavement occurred
four or five times: in the origin of
mitochondria and chloroplasts from
different negibacteria, of
chromalveolates by the enslaving of a
red alga (Cavalier-Smith, 1999, 2003;
Harper and Keeling, 2003) and in the
origin of the green plastids of
euglenoid (excavate) and chlorarachnean
(cercozoan) algae-a green algal cell
was enslaved either by the ancestral
cabozoan (arrow) or (less likely) twice
independently within excavates and
Cercozoa (asterisks) (Cavalier-Smith,
2003a). The upper thumbnail sketch
shows membrane topology in the
chimaeric cryptophytes (class
Cryptophyceae of the phylum Cryptista);
in the ancestral chromist the former
food vacuole membrane fused with the
rough endoplasmic reticulum placing the
enslaved cell within its lumen (red) to
yield the complex membrane topology
shown. The large host nucleus and the
tiny nucleomorph are shown in blue,
chloroplast green and mitochondrion
purple. In chlorarachneans (class
Chlorarachnea of phylum Cercozoa) the
former food vacuole membrane remained
topologically distinct from the ER to
become an epiplastid membrane and so
did not acquire ribosomes on its
surface, but their membrane topology is
otherwise similar to the cryptophytes.
The other sketches portray the four
major kinds of cell in the living world
and their membrane topology. The upper
ones show the contrasting ancestral
microtubular cytoskeleton (ciliary
roots, in red) of unikonts (a cone of
single microtubules attaching the
single centriole to the nucleus, blue)
and bikonts (two bands of microtubules
attached to the posterior centriole and
an anterior fan of microtubules
attached to the anterior centriole).
The lower ones show the single plasma
membrane of unibacteria (posibacteria
plus archaebacteria), which were
ancestral to eukaryotes and the double
envelope of negibacteria, which were
ancestral to mitochondria and
chloroplasts (which retained the outer
membrane, red).
source: http://aob.oxfordjournals.org/cg
i/content/full/95/1/147/FIG2
[2] Fig. 1. A consensus phylogeny of
eukaryotes. The vast majority of
characterized eukaryotes, with the
notable exception of major subgroups of
amoebae, can now be assigned to one of
eight major groups. Opisthokonts (basal
flagellum) have a single basal
flagellum on reproductive cells and
flat mitochondrial cristae (most
eukaryotes have tubular ones).
Eukaryotic photosynthesis originated in
Plants; theirs are the only plastids
with just two outer membranes.
Heterokonts (different flagellae) have
a unique flagellum decorated with
hollow tripartite hairs (stramenopiles)
and, usually, a second plain one.
Cercozoans are amoebae with filose
pseudopodia, often living with in tests
(hard outer shells), some very
elaborate (foraminiferans). Amoebozoa
are mostly naked amoebae (lacking
tests), often with lobose pseudopodia
for at least part of their life cycle.
Alveolates have systems of cortical
alveoli directly beneath their plasma
membranes. Discicristates have discoid
mitochondrial cristae and, in some
cases, a deep (excavated) ventral
feeding groove. Amitochondrial
excavates lack substantial molecular
phylogenetic support, but most have an
excavated ventral feeding groove, and
all lack mitochondria. The tree shown
is based on a consensus of molecular
(1-4) and ultrastructural (16, 17) data
and includes a rough indication of new
ciPCR ''taxa'' (broken black lines)
(7-11). An asterisk preceding the taxon
name indicates probable paraphyletic
group.
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/co
ntent/full/300/5626/1703
{FOraMiniFRu}, (unicellular protists
with fine pseudopodia that extend from
a cytoplasm body encased within a
calcium carbonate shell).
[1] FIG. 2. The tree of life based on
molecular, ultrastructural and
palaeontological evidence. Contrary to
widespread assumptions, the root is
among the eubacteria, probably within
the double-enveloped Negibacteria, not
between eubacteria and archaebacteria
(Cavalier-Smith, 2002b); it may lie
between Eobacteria and other
Negibacteria (Cavalier-Smith, 2002b).
The position of the eukaryotic root has
been nearly as controversial, but is
less hard to establish: it probably
lies between unikonts and bikonts (Lang
et al., 2002; Stechmann and
Cavalier-Smith, 2002, 2003). For
clarity the basal eukaryotic kingdom
Protozoa is not labelled; it comprises
four major groups (alveolates, cabozoa,
Amoebozoa and Choanozoa) plus the small
bikont phylum Apusozoa of unclear
precise position; whether Heliozoa are
protozoa as shown or chromists is
uncertain (Cavalier-Smith, 2003b).
Symbiogenetic cell enslavement occurred
four or five times: in the origin of
mitochondria and chloroplasts from
different negibacteria, of
chromalveolates by the enslaving of a
red alga (Cavalier-Smith, 1999, 2003;
Harper and Keeling, 2003) and in the
origin of the green plastids of
euglenoid (excavate) and chlorarachnean
(cercozoan) algae-a green algal cell
was enslaved either by the ancestral
cabozoan (arrow) or (less likely) twice
independently within excavates and
Cercozoa (asterisks) (Cavalier-Smith,
2003a). The upper thumbnail sketch
shows membrane topology in the
chimaeric cryptophytes (class
Cryptophyceae of the phylum Cryptista);
in the ancestral chromist the former
food vacuole membrane fused with the
rough endoplasmic reticulum placing the
enslaved cell within its lumen (red) to
yield the complex membrane topology
shown. The large host nucleus and the
tiny nucleomorph are shown in blue,
chloroplast green and mitochondrion
purple. In chlorarachneans (class
Chlorarachnea of phylum Cercozoa) the
former food vacuole membrane remained
topologically distinct from the ER to
become an epiplastid membrane and so
did not acquire ribosomes on its
surface, but their membrane topology is
otherwise similar to the cryptophytes.
The other sketches portray the four
major kinds of cell in the living world
and their membrane topology. The upper
ones show the contrasting ancestral
microtubular cytoskeleton (ciliary
roots, in red) of unikonts (a cone of
single microtubules attaching the
single centriole to the nucleus, blue)
and bikonts (two bands of microtubules
attached to the posterior centriole and
an anterior fan of microtubules
attached to the anterior centriole).
The lower ones show the single plasma
membrane of unibacteria (posibacteria
plus archaebacteria), which were
ancestral to eukaryotes and the double
envelope of negibacteria, which were
ancestral to mitochondria and
chloroplasts (which retained the outer
membrane, red).
source: http://aob.oxfordjournals.org/cg
i/content/full/95/1/147/FIG2
[2] Fig. 1. A consensus phylogeny of
eukaryotes. The vast majority of
characterized eukaryotes, with the
notable exception of major subgroups of
amoebae, can now be assigned to one of
eight major groups. Opisthokonts (basal
flagellum) have a single basal
flagellum on reproductive cells and
flat mitochondrial cristae (most
eukaryotes have tubular ones).
Eukaryotic photosynthesis originated in
Plants; theirs are the only plastids
with just two outer membranes.
Heterokonts (different flagellae) have
a unique flagellum decorated with
hollow tripartite hairs (stramenopiles)
and, usually, a second plain one.
Cercozoans are amoebae with filose
pseudopodia, often living with in tests
(hard outer shells), some very
elaborate (foraminiferans). Amoebozoa
are mostly naked amoebae (lacking
tests), often with lobose pseudopodia
for at least part of their life cycle.
Alveolates have systems of cortical
alveoli directly beneath their plasma
membranes. Discicristates have discoid
mitochondrial cristae and, in some
cases, a deep (excavated) ventral
feeding groove. Amitochondrial
excavates lack substantial molecular
phylogenetic support, but most have an
excavated ventral feeding groove, and
all lack mitochondria. The tree shown
is based on a consensus of molecular
(1-4) and ultrastructural (16, 17) data
and includes a rough indication of new
ciPCR ''taxa'' (broken black lines)
(7-11). An asterisk preceding the taxon
name indicates probable paraphyletic
group.
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/co
ntent/full/300/5626/1703
Placozoans look like amoebas but are
multicellular. The only known species
in this phylum is Trichoplax adhaerens.
Trichoplax lives in the sea and feeds
on single celled organisms, mostly
algae. Trichoplax has only 4 cell types
compared to the more than 200 cell
types in humans. Trichoplax has two
main cell layers, like a cnidarian or
ctenophore. Between these two layers
are a few contractile cells that are
similar to muscle cells, however
placozoans lack muscle and nerve cells.
Trichoplax has only 1 hox gene.
[1] Description Trichoplax sp.
from Australia in light
microscopy Date February
2006 Source Oliver Voigt Author
Oliver Voigt CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c3/Trichoplax_mic.jpg
("Ciliates") (includes paramecium).
Earliest mitochondria with tubular
christae.
The Ciliophora are protists
characterized by having numerous cilia.
Most ciliophora are single celled.
Cilia have a fixed shape and use their
cilia to move themselves. Cilia have
two nuclei: a macronucleus and a
micronucleus. Ciliates reproduce
asexually by binary fission and
sexually by conjugation. Ciliates eat a
variety of food including bacteria and
other protists using their "cytostome"
("cell mouth").
[1] Summary Description English:
Scanning electron microscope view of
Oxytricha trifallax Español: Imagen
de microscopía electrónica de barrido
de Oxytricha trifallax Date Unknown
date Source http://www.genome.gov/I
mages/press_photos/highres/85-300.jpg
Author Unknown Permission (Reusin
g this file) See below. PD [1] Fig.
1. A consensus phylogeny of eukaryotes.
The vast majority of characterized
eukaryotes, with the notable exception
of major subgroups of amoebae, can now
be assigned to one of eight major
groups. Opisthokonts (basal flagellum)
have a single basal flagellum on
reproductive cells and flat
mitochondrial cristae (most eukaryotes
have tubular ones). Eukaryotic
photosynthesis originated in Plants;
theirs are the only plastids with just
two outer membranes. Heterokonts
(different flagellae) have a unique
flagellum decorated with hollow
tripartite hairs (stramenopiles) and,
usually, a second plain one. Cercozoans
are amoebae with filose pseudopodia,
often living with in tests (hard outer
shells), some very elaborate
(foraminiferans). Amoebozoa are mostly
naked amoebae (lacking tests), often
with lobose pseudopodia for at least
part of their life cycle. Alveolates
have systems of cortical alveoli
directly beneath their plasma
membranes. Discicristates have discoid
mitochondrial cristae and, in some
cases, a deep (excavated) ventral
feeding groove. Amitochondrial
excavates lack substantial molecular
phylogenetic support, but most have an
excavated ventral feeding groove, and
all lack mitochondria. The tree shown
is based on a consensus of molecular
(1-4) and ultrastructural (16, 17) data
and includes a rough indication of new
ciPCR ''taxa'' (broken black lines)
(7-11). An asterisk preceding the taxon
name indicates probable paraphyletic
group COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Oxytricha_trifa
llax.jpg/1024px-Oxytricha_trifallax.jpg
[2] 2 Ciliates conjugating UNKNOWN
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/co
ntent/full/300/5626/1703
{a-Pi-KoM-PleK-Su} (Malaria,
Toxoplasmosis).
[1] Description A thin-film Giemsa
stained micrograph of ring-forms, and
gametocytes of Plasmodium falciparum.
From
http://phil.cdc.gov/phil/home.asp Date
2006-11-16 (original upload
date) Source Originally from
en.wikipedia; description page is/was
here. Author Original uploader was
TimVickers at
en.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3c/Plasmodium.jpg
[2] Fig. 1. A consensus phylogeny of
eukaryotes. The vast majority of
characterized eukaryotes, with the
notable exception of major subgroups of
amoebae, can now be assigned to one of
eight major groups. Opisthokonts (basal
flagellum) have a single basal
flagellum on reproductive cells and
flat mitochondrial cristae (most
eukaryotes have tubular ones).
Eukaryotic photosynthesis originated in
Plants; theirs are the only plastids
with just two outer membranes.
Heterokonts (different flagellae) have
a unique flagellum decorated with
hollow tripartite hairs (stramenopiles)
and, usually, a second plain one.
Cercozoans are amoebae with filose
pseudopodia, often living with in tests
(hard outer shells), some very
elaborate (foraminiferans). Amoebozoa
are mostly naked amoebae (lacking
tests), often with lobose pseudopodia
for at least part of their life cycle.
Alveolates have systems of cortical
alveoli directly beneath their plasma
membranes. Discicristates have discoid
mitochondrial cristae and, in some
cases, a deep (excavated) ventral
feeding groove. Amitochondrial
excavates lack substantial molecular
phylogenetic support, but most have an
excavated ventral feeding groove, and
all lack mitochondria. The tree shown
is based on a consensus of molecular
(1-4) and ultrastructural (16, 17) data
and includes a rough indication of new
ciPCR ''taxa'' (broken black lines)
(7-11). An asterisk preceding the taxon
name indicates probable paraphyletic
group COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/co
ntent/full/300/5626/1703
are arranged in layers evolve in
metazoans.
[1] Description This is an example
of a ctenophore, Bathocyroe fosteri,
which is a mesopelagic species. Date
Source Description This is
an example of a ctenophore, Bathocyroe
fosteri, which is a mesopelagic
species. Date Source
[1] Author Photo courtesy of
Marsh Youngbluth Author Photo
courtesy of Marsh Youngbluth PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/21/Bathocyroe_fosteri.jp
g
[2] Light diffracting along the comb
rows of a Mertensia ovum. The right
lower portion of the body is
regenerating from previous damage.
Source: NOAA Photo Gallery/ Photo by
Kevin Raskoff PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/42/LightRefractsOf_comb-
rows_of_ctenophore_Mertensia_ovum.jpg
nervous system evolves in the ancestor
of the Ctenophores and Cnidarians. This
leads to the first ganglion and brain.
Earliest touch and sound detection.
The most primitive extant organisms
that contain a neuron cell are the
ctenophora.
Simple and sessile cnidarians have no
sense organs, but they do have sensory
cells in both tissues that respond to
light, chemical or mechanical stimuli.
These sensory cells are often
structurally similar to those of
vertebrates. Each has a cilium that
protrudes into the water. The sensory
cells synapse (are closely spaced to)
with nerve cells, allowing the animal
to generally respond to stimuli at a
distance instead of responding at the
site of the stimulus.
Some Cnidarians have ganglia,
aggregations of nerve cells.
[1] English: Drawing of Purkinje cells
(A) and granule cells (B) from pigeon
cerebellum by Santiago Ramón y Cajal,
1899; Instituto Santiago Ramón y
Cajal, Madrid, Spain. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/15/PurkinjeCell.jpg
[2] figure from: D. T. Anderson,
''Invertebrate Zoology'', Oxford
University Press, Second Edition, 2001,
p39. COPYRIGHTED
source: D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p39.
According to genetic comparison, both
the earliest known muscle and nerve
cells are found in Ctenophora.
Ctenophores move by cilia, but
Cnidarians move by muscle contraction.
However, Cnidaria lack true muscle
cells; their muscle fibers are always
extensions of an epithelial cell.
Ctenophores have true muscle cells.
[1] Figure from: D. T. Anderson,
''Invertebrate Zoology'', Oxford
University Press, Second Edition, 2001,
p39. COPYRIGHTED
source: D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001, p39.
(single celled nonphotosynthesizing
eukaryotes) and earliest fossil of a
testate amoeba.
Canyon, Arizona, USA
[1] Knoll, Life on a Young Planet
COPYRIGHTED
source: Knoll, Life on a Young Planet
metazoans.
[1] Description This is an example
of a ctenophore, Bathocyroe fosteri,
which is a mesopelagic species. Date
Source Description This is
an example of a ctenophore, Bathocyroe
fosteri, which is a mesopelagic
species. Date Source
[1] Author Photo courtesy of
Marsh Youngbluth Author Photo
courtesy of Marsh Youngbluth PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/21/Bathocyroe_fosteri.jp
g
[2] Light diffracting along the comb
rows of a Mertensia ovum. The right
lower portion of the body is
regenerating from previous damage.
Source: NOAA Photo Gallery/ Photo by
Kevin Raskoff PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/42/LightRefractsOf_comb-
rows_of_ctenophore_Mertensia_ovum.jpg
{TeNOFORZ} evolve (comb jellies). Cells
are grouped as tissues. Ctenophora are
the extant metazoan to have nerve and
muscle cells.
Like jellyfish, the bodies of
Ctenophora are built from only two
layers of tissue, their main body
cavity is also the digestive chamber,
and they have a simple nerve net.
Hair-like cilia propel the ctenophora
instead of the pulsating muscles which
propel jellyfish.
[1] Description This is an example
of a ctenophore, Bathocyroe fosteri,
which is a mesopelagic species. Date
Source Description This is
an example of a ctenophore, Bathocyroe
fosteri, which is a mesopelagic
species. Date Source
[1] Author Photo courtesy of
Marsh Youngbluth Author Photo
courtesy of Marsh Youngbluth PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/21/Bathocyroe_fosteri.jp
g
[2] Light diffracting along the comb
rows of a Mertensia ovum. The right
lower portion of the body is
regenerating from previous damage.
Source: NOAA Photo Gallery/ Photo by
Kevin Raskoff PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/42/LightRefractsOf_comb-
rows_of_ctenophore_Mertensia_ovum.jpg
(Arbuscular {oRBuSKYUlR} mycorrhizal
{MIKerIZL} fungi).
Glomeromycota {GlO-mi-rO-mI-KO-Tu} are
also know by their class name
Glomeromycetes {GlO-mi-rO-mI-SETS}
[1] Gigaspora margarita in association
with Lotus corniculatus Description
Lotus corniculatus var. japonicus
kolonisiert durch Gigaspora
margarita Date 18 September
2007 Source Own work Author
Mike Guether GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Gigaspora_marga
rita.JPG/1024px-Gigaspora_margarita.JPG
[2] germinating Gigaspora decipiens
source: http://pages.unibas.ch/bothebel/
people/redecker/ff/glomero.htm
evidence of animals (metazoans),
steranes associated with demosponges.
Basin, Oman
[1] Description Nederlands:
Tonspons Date Source Own
work Author Albert Kok GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Barrel6.jpg/123
6px-Barrel6.jpg
[2] Description English: Monanchora
arbuscula (Pink Lumpy
sponge) Français: Monanchora
arbuscula (éponge rose
grumeleuse) Date 12 September
2010 Source Own
work Author Nhobgood Nick
Hobgood GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Monanchora_ungu
ifera_%28Pink_Lumpy_sponge%29.jpg/1023px
-Monanchora_unguifera_%28Pink_Lumpy_spon
ge%29.jpg
{NIDAREeNS} evolve (sea anemones,
corals, jellyfish). Earliest animal
eye.
Cnidaria {NIDAREeo} are a phylum of
invertebrate animals composed of the
sea anemones, corals, jellyfish, and
hydroids. Cnidarians are radially
symmetrical. Cnidarians have a body
wall composed of three layers.
Tentacles encircle the mouth and are
used in part for food capture.
Cnidarians have two alternate body
plans, the polyp and the medusa. A sea
anemone or Hydra is a typical polyp:
non-moving, mouth on top, bottom end
fixed to the ground like a plant. A
jellyfish is a typical medusa, swimming
through the open sea. Many cnidarians
have both polyp and medusa forms in a
single life cycle. Polyps often
reproduce by budding which results in
an individual clone of the parent. In
some polyps the clone doesn't break off
but stays attached and polyps on the
same polyp tree may be specialized for
different roles, such as feeding,
defense, or reproduction.
Cnidarians have a nervous system which
is a network, not centralized into a
ganglia. They also have muscles which
are contracted to propel them. Their
digestive organ is a single cavity with
only one opening which is both mouth
and anus. They have no circulatory
system. All cnidarians have cells
called cnidocytes, each with its own
cell-sized harpoon called a cnida. All
cnidarians have cnidae, and only
cnidarians have them. Once triggered
the harpoon cell cannot be used again,
but are constantly replaced.
Cnidarians have sensory cells that
respond to light, chemical or
mechanical stimuli. Each has a cilium
that protrudes into the water. The
sensory cells and nerve cells are
separated by a small space (synapse),
allowing the animal to generally
respond to stimuli at a distance
instead of responding at the site of
the stimulus.
Porifera (sponges have no obvious
symmetry), while Cnidarians are
radially symmetrical and Ctenophores
are biradially symmetrical.
To reproduce sexually Cnidaria sperm
are released into the water and
fertilization is usually external.
[1] Octocorals Stylatula elongata –
White Sea Pen UNKNOWN
source: http://pt-lobos.com/cnidarianimg
/white_sea_pens.jpg
[2] Sea nettles, Chrysaora
quinquecirrha CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/36/Sea_nettles.jpg
{Bo-SiDEO-mI-KO-Tu} (most mushrooms,
rusts, club fungi).
[1] Amanita muscaria
(Homobasidiomycetes)
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Agaricales.jpg
[2] Basidiomycete Life Cycle tjv
source: http://botit.botany.wisc.edu/ima
ges/332/Basidiomycota/General_basidio/Ba
sidiomycete_Life_Cycle_tjv.php?highres=t
rue
{aS-KO-mI-KO-Tu} (yeasts, truffles,
Penicillium, morels, sac fungi) .
[1] white truffle
cutted photographed by
myself GNU head Permission is
granted to copy, distribute and/or
modify this document under the terms of
the GNU Free Documentation License,
Version 1.2 or any later version
published by the Free Software
Foundation; with no Invariant Sections,
no Front-Cover Texts, and no Back-Cover
Texts. A copy of the license is
included in the section entitled ''Text
of the GNU Free Documentation
License.''
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/fd/Truffle_washed_and_cu
tted.jpg
[2] EColi-Scerevisiae.jpg (50KB, MIME
type: image/jpeg) Wikimedia Commons
logo This is a file from the Wikimedia
Commons. The description on its
description page there is shown
below. Escherichia coli (little
forms) & Saccharomyces cerevisiae (big
forms) by MEB Public domain This file
has been released into the public
domain by the copyright holder, its
copyright has expired, or it is
ineligible for copyright. This applies
worldwide. brewer's yeast/baker's
yeast
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:EColi-Scerevisiae.jpg
body wall or mesentaries by
differentiation of interstitial cells.
Cnidaria have no complex reproductive
organs.
[1] From: Brusca and Brusca,
''Invertebrates'', Second Edition,
2003. COPYRIGHTED
source: Brusca and Brusca,
"Invertebrates", Second Edition, 2003
[2] Figure 3.8 Anthozoa. (a) Anemone
(Actiniaria), showing the pharynx,
mesenteries, mesenterial filamnets and
acontia. (b) Structure of a mesenterial
filament in transverse section. (c)
Scleractinian coral, showing calcareous
skeleton and coenenchyme. (d)
Gorgonian, showing skeleton made up of
a horny axial rod and spicules in the
mesogloea (after Pearse et al 1987).
(e) Alcyonarian soft coral, showing
spicular skeleton in the
mesogloea. From: D. T. Anderson,
''Invertebrate Zoology'', Oxford
University Press, Second Edition,
2001. COPYRIGHTED
source: D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001.
shows the pseudocoel and schizocoel
lines separating here at 675 mybn
(first schizocoel).
Ice Age (650-590 mybn).
sided symmetry).
Earliest animal brain (ganglion,
memory). First triploblastic species
(third embryonic layer: the mesoderm).
In bilaterians food enters in one end
(the mouth) and waste exists at the
opposite end (the anus). There is an
advantage for sense organs: light,
sound, touch, smell, and taste
detection to be located on the head
near the mouth to help with catching
food.
The earliest brain (ganglion, memory)
develop in a bilaterian worm.
This begins the Animal Subkingdom
"Bilateria".
[1] Convoluta pulchra Smith and Bush
1991, a typical mud-inhabiting acoel
that feeds on diatoms
source: ?
[2] Figure from: Giribet, G. (2008).
Assembling the lophotrochozoan
(=spiralian) tree of life.
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society B: Biological Sciences , 363
(1496), 1513-1522. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2007.2241
http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/363/1496/1513 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://rstb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/363/1496/1513
Acoelomorpha (acoela flat worms and
nemertodermatida).
Acoelomorpha lack a digestive track,
anus and coelom.
Flatworms have no lungs or gills and
breathe through their skin, with no
circulating blood, their branched gut
presumably transports nutrients to all
parts of the body.
[1] Convoluta pulchra Smith and Bush
1991, a typical mud-inhabiting acoel
that feeds on diatoms
source: ?
[2] Figure from: Giribet, G. (2008).
Assembling the lophotrochozoan
(=spiralian) tree of life.
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society B: Biological Sciences , 363
(1496), 1513-1522. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2007.2241
http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/363/1496/1513 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://rstb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/363/1496/1513
bilaterian. Since the gut of this
organism has no anus, undigested food
must be regurgitated through the mouth.
This restriction limits the possibility
of development of regions specialized
for particular functions in the
intestine. The intestine is lined with
a monolayer of endodermal cells
(gastrodermis) which carry out some or
all of the processes of digestion and
absorption. Partial extracellular
digestion may occur, with enzymes being
secreted in the pharynx or by the
gastrodermal cells. The semi-digested
material is phagocytosed (engulfed) by
the intestinal cells, in which final
digestion occurs.
[1] From: D. T. Anderson,
''Invertebrate Zoology'', Oxford
University Press, Second Edition,
2001. COPYRIGHTED
source: D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001.
[2] Convoluta pulchra Smith and Bush
1991, a typical mud-inhabiting acoel
that feeds on diatoms
source: ?
through-put of food evolves in a
bilaterian; found in all bilaterians
except flatworms.
[1] From: D. T. Anderson,
''Invertebrate Zoology'', Oxford
University Press, Second Edition,
2001. COPYRIGHTED
source: D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001.
[2] Convoluta pulchra Smith and Bush
1991, a typical mud-inhabiting acoel
that feeds on diatoms
source: ?
uterus evolve in a bilaterian.
[1] From: D. T. Anderson,
''Invertebrate Zoology'', Oxford
University Press, Second Edition,
2001. COPYRIGHTED
source: D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001.
[2] Convoluta pulchra Smith and Bush
1991, a typical mud-inhabiting acoel
that feeds on diatoms
source: ?
[1] From: Brusca and Brusca,
''Invertebrates'', Second Edition,
2003 COPYRIGHTED
source: Brusca and Brusca,
"Invertebrates", Second Edition, 2003
[2] From: Ruppert, Fox, Barnes,
''Invertebrate Zoology'',
2004. COPYRIGHTED
source: Ruppert, Fox, Barnes,
"Invertebrate Zoology", 2004.
[1] Clathrulina (cla-through-line-a),
showing head region and included
amoeboid cell. Differential
interference contrast. Some rights
reserved Supplier:
micro*scope Author: David Patterson
and Aimlee Laderman CC
source: http://content62.eol.org/content
/2008/12/10/21/61316_580_360.jpg
[2] Description Cercomonas sp. /
from Lake Yuniko, Nikko, Tochigi Pref.,
Japan / Microscope:Leica DMRD
(DIC) Date 2007/05/07 Source O
wn work Author ja:User:NEON /
commons:User:NEON_ja CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/ca/Cercomonas_sp.jpg
(SEleM) evolves in an early bilaterian.
In most bilaterally symmetrical
invertebrates an internal cavity exists
between the body wall and the gut wall.
[1] From NATURAL HISTORY
COLLECTIONS OF THE UNIVERSITY OF
EDINBURGH Formation of the coelom or
body cavity Acoelomates lack a
body cavity. In pseudocoelomates,
the coelom is formed from a persistent
embryonic cavity. In schizocoelous
coelomates, the coelom is formed by
splits in the embryonic mesoderm, the
middle layer of the body. In
enterocoelous coelomates, the coelom
forms within pouches of the gut
wall. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.nhc.ed.ac.uk/images/c
ollections/invertebrates/intros/LgCoelom
.jpg
soft-bodied invertebrate fossils.
The sudden appearance of Ediacaran
fossils may relate to the accumulation
of free oxygen in the atmosphere and
sea, which may permit oxidative
metabolism in organisms.
Some of the earliest Ediacaran fossils
date to at least 600 million years ago
in Sonora, Mexico, and there are
discoidal (circular or elliptical)
fossils in Kazakhstan that are possibly
cnidarian that date all the way to 770
mya. However, some people claim that
these discoidal fossils are actually
microbial mats made by cyanobacteria
which flourish on the sea floor in the
absence of grazing and burrowing
organisms, but the development of
efficient grazing greatly reduces their
development in all but extreme
environments.
Lesser Karatau Microcontinent,
Kazakhsta
[1] A general view of the life in the
time frame from about 605 to 542
million years ago (the Vendian), is
found at this New Zealand site which
concentrates on the Ediacaran epoch; it
mentions Australian and other
geographic localities where the
assemblages have been found. The fossil
life is represented entirely by
creatures with soft parts only. It is
suggested that these may be ancestral
to later phylla observed at the
beginning of the Paleozoic. Below is a
chart presenting typical Ediacaran
fauna, followed by an artist's
depiction of life on the sea floor at
that time, and beneath that is a layout
of some actual fossils: PD
source: http://rst.gsfc.nasa.gov/Sect20/
800pxlife_in_the_ediacaran_sea.jpg
[2] A more general view of the life in
the time frame from about 600+ to 542
million years ago (end of Proterozoic
and Precambrian into the oldest
Cambrian), known as the Ediacaran or
Vendian, is found at this New Zealand
site; it mentions Australian and other
geographic localities where the
assemblages have been found. The fossil
life represents entirely creatures with
soft parts only and suggestions that
these may be ancestral to later phylla
observed at the beginning of the
Paleozoic. Below is an artist's sketch
of some of these creatures: UNKNOWN
source: http://www.fas.org/irp/imint/doc
s/rst/Sect20/vendintro.jpg
evolve in a bilaterian. Nemerteans,
cylindrical worms, have a network of
blood channels in the mesenchyme
(undifferentiated tissue between
organs) but have no heart or pumping
vessel. First blood vessels.
[1] From: D. T. Anderson,
''Invertebrate Zoology'', Oxford
University Press, Second Edition,
2001 COPYRIGHTED
source: D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001
[2] From: D. T. Anderson,
''Invertebrate Zoology'', Oxford
University Press, Second Edition,
2001 COPYRIGHTED
source: D. T. Anderson, "Invertebrate
Zoology", Oxford University Press,
Second Edition, 2001
Protostomes are divided into two major
groups: the Ecdysozoa {eK-DiS-u-ZOu}
and the Lophotrochozoa {LuFoTroKoZOu}.
The Lophotrochozoa, is subdivided into
the Platyzoa {PlaTiZOu} and the
Trochozoa.
[1] English: This diagram is showing
the difference of the two major types
of coelomates: the protostomes
(molluscs, annelids, arthropods, ...)
and deuterostomes (echinoderms,
vertebrates, ...). These groups differ
in several characteristics of early
development; In deuterostomes blastula
devisions is called ''radial cleavage''
because it occurs parallel or
perpendicular to the major polar axis.
In protostomes the cleavage is called
''spirale'' because division planes are
oriented obliquely to the polar major
axis. During gastrulation, protostomes
embryos' mouth was given first by the
blastopore while the anus was formed
later and vis versa for the
deuterostomes. As examples :
Squids are protostomes. Sea
urchins are deuterostomes. Date
14 October 2009 Source Own
work Author WYassineMrabetTalk✉ CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Protovsdeuteros
tomes.svg/1000px-Protovsdeuterostomes.sv
g.png
[2] English: This diagram is showing
the difference of the two major types
of coelomates: the protostomes
(molluscs, annelids, arthropods, ...)
and deuterostomes (echinoderms,
vertebrates, ...). These groups differ
in several characteristics of early
development; In deuterostomes blastula
devisions is called ''radial cleavage''
because it occurs parallel or
perpendicular to the major polar axis.
In protostomes the cleavage is called
''spirale'' because division planes are
oriented obliquely to the polar major
axis. During gastrulation, protostomes
embryos' mouth was given first by the
blastopore while the anus was formed
later and vis versa for the
deuterostomes. As examples :
Squids are protostomes. Sea
urchins are deuterostomes. Date
14 October 2009 Source Own
work Author WYassineMrabetTalk✉ CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Protovsdeuteros
tomes.svg/1000px-Protovsdeuterostomes.sv
g.png
evolves. The first known shell belongs
to a group of ciliates called
tintinnids. Skeletons evolve
independently in different groups.
These are also the earliest known
ciliate fossils.
Guizhou Province, South China
[1] Figure 1 from: Li, C.-W.; et al.
(2007). ''Ciliated protozoans from the
Precambrian Doushantuo Formation,
Wengan, South China''. Geological
Society, London, Special Publications
286: 151–156.
doi:10.1144/SP286.11. http://dx.doi.org
/10.1144%2FSP286.11
{Ciliates_Fossils_Precambrian_Li_580my
bn.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://dx.doi.org/10.1144%2FSP28
6.11
AND {Ciliates_Fossils_Precambrian_Li_58
0mybn.pdf}
[2] Figure 1 from: Li, C.-W.; et al.
(2007). ''Ciliated protozoans from the
Precambrian Doushantuo Formation,
Wengan, South China''. Geological
Society, London, Special Publications
286: 151–156.
doi:10.1144/SP286.11. http://dx.doi.org
/10.1144%2FSP286.11
{Ciliates_Fossils_Precambrian_Li_580my
bn.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://dx.doi.org/10.1144%2FSP28
6.11
AND {Ciliates_Fossils_Precambrian_Li_58
0mybn.pdf}
bilaterian fossil, Vernanimalcula, 178
um in length. First fossil of organism
with bilateral symmetry, mouth,
digestive track, gut and anus.
[1] Fig. 2. Close-up images of
prominent anatomical features of
Vernanimalcula guizhouena. The scale
bar represents 18 µm in (A), 32 µm in
(B), 24 µm in (C), and 28 µm in (D).
SO, sensory organ, i.e., external pit;
LU, lumen; PH, pharynx; MO, mouth; CO,
coelomic lumen; CW, mesodermal coelomic
wall; GU, gut. (A) Detail of collared
mouth, multilayered pharynx, and one
anterior surface pit. In this image,
which is from the holotype specimen
(Fig. 1A), the floor of the pit can be
seen to be composed of a specialized
concave layer. Note the coelomic wall,
which here as elsewhere in these
specimens has a thickness of about 5 to
6 µm. (B) Mouth of a fourth specimen,
Q3105, displaying collared mouth and
pharynx, ventral view. (C) Lumen of
pharynx from a fifth specimen, X10419,
secondarily encrusted but revealing
morphology of opening of pharynx into
gut similar to that seen in the
specimens shown in Fig. 1. (D) Close-up
of spaced external pits, interpreted as
possible sensory organs, from the same
specimen as shown in Fig. 1B [compare
(A)].
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/co
ntent/full/sci;305/5681/218
[2] Fig. 1. Images of three different,
fairly well preserved specimens of the
bilaterally organized fossil animal
Vernanimalcula guizhouena. Left panels
show digitally recorded, transmitted
light images of sections about 50 µm
thick, which had been ground from
larger rock samples, mounted on slides,
and viewed through a light microscope.
Right panels show color-coded
representations of the images on the
left. These were prepared by digital
image overlay. Yellow, external
ectodermal layer; ochre, coelomic
mesodermal layer; red, surface pits;
mauve, pharynx; light tan, endodermal
wall of gut; gray-green, lumen of
mouth; dark gray, paired coelomic
cavities; lighter gray, lumen of gut;
brown, ''gland-like'' structures, with
central lumen (B); light green, mineral
inclusions (C). The scale bar
represents 40 µm in (A), 55 µm in
(B), and 46 µm in (C). (A) Holotype
specimen, X00305, slightly tilted,
almost complete ventral level coronal
section, passing through the ventrally
located mouth. (B) Coronal section of
second specimen, X08981, passing
through dorsal wall of pharynx and
displaying complete A-P length of
digestive tract, including posterior
end [not visible in (A)]. (C) Tilted
coronal section of third specimen,
X10475, possibly slightly squashed,
passing through dorsal wall of pharynx
and through the dorsal wall of the gut.
For dimensions, see Table 1.
source:
{eK-DiS-u-ZOu} evolve. Ecdysozoa are
animals that molt (lose their outer
skin) as they grow. This is the
ancestor of round worms, and arthropods
(which includes insects and crustaceans
{also known as "shell-fish"}).
[1] Dunn et al., CW; Hejnol, A; Matus,
DQ; Pang, K; Browne, WE; Smith, SA;
Seaver, E; Rouse, GW et al. (2008).
''Broad phylogenomic sampling improves
resolution of the animal tree of
life''. Nature 452 (7188): 745–749.
doi:10.1038/nature06614. PMID
18322464. http://www.nature.com/nature/
journal/v452/n7188/abs/nature06614.html
GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecd
ysozoa
[2] The figured topology and branch
lengths are for the sampled tree with
the highest likelihood (1,000 searches,
log likelihood = –796,399.2). Support
values are derived from 1,000 bootstrap
replicates. Leaf stabilities are shown
in blue above each branch. Taxa for
which we collected new data are shown
in green. from: Dunn et al., CW;
Hejnol, A; Matus, DQ; Pang, K; Browne,
WE; Smith, SA; Seaver, E; Rouse, GW et
al. (2008). ''Broad phylogenomic
sampling improves resolution of the
animal tree of life''. Nature 452
(7188): 745–749.
doi:10.1038/nature06614. PMID
18322464. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v452/n7188/images/nature06614-f1.2.
jpg
{Lu-Fo-Tro-Ku-ZO-u} evolve. Ancestor of
all brachiopods {BrA-KE-O-PoDZ},
bryozoans {BrI-u-ZO-iNZ}, and molluscs.
[1] A rotifer. The cilia around
this rotifer's mouth are unusually
long; they reach as far as the strand
of spirogyra to the right. 10×
objective, 15× eyepiece. The numbered
ticks on the scale are 122 µM apart.
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencephoto.com/imag
e/121893/530wm/C0058380-Rotifer_SEM-SPL.
jpg
[2] Description Clams Date
Source Own work Author
Marlith CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/8f/Clams.JPG
Guizhou Province, South China
[1] Figure 2 Putative cnidarian
embryos and larvae. (A) Oblique section
of a possible fossil anthozoan planula.
(B) Schematic view of a transverse
section of the late planula of the
anthozoan Euphyllia rugosa. The larval
stage represented in A and B is
constituted of an outer monocellular
layer, the ectoderm, within which is an
inner endodermal layer with various
mesenteric folds and immature septa.
This complicated bilayered structure is
typical of anthozoan late planula
larvae. Note the individual cells
visible in the ectodermal layer at
lower left in A, where it has separated
from the endodermal layer. (Scale bar,
100 μm.) (C and D) Putative fossil
gastrula of hydrozoan medusa; (C)
Bright field; (D) Polarized light.
Under polarized light (D), both layers
show the same crystal orientation at
arrows, as indicated by the same
colors. The modern hydrozoan embryo
shown in E is Liriope mucronata. B is
from Chevalier (47); E from Campbell
(48). (Scale bar in C is 50 μm.)
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.pnas.org/content/97/9
/4457/F2.large.jpg
[2] FIgure 3 Figure 3 Putative
fossil embryos that resemble bilaterian
gastrulae. (A–G) Fossils resembling
deuterostome embryos; (H) Modern
example (gastrulae of the sea urchin
Mespilia globulus, ref. 49) In A, C,
and E, the archenteron is bent to one
side, and in A and C displays bilobed
outpocketings; (A) The nearer
ectodermal layer is thicker compared
with the opposite one (possible oral
and aboral ectoderms, respectively;
compare H). (C) A section in the plane
indicated by the small arrowheads in A.
(B and D) Polarized light microscope
images, showing that the cells
comprising the outpocketings are
differently oriented, as they appear in
different colors from those
constituting the walls of the gut. In
A, part of the outer wall is deformed
(arrow) by a crystal grain visible in B
(light pink). (G), Another specimen
displaying invaginating archenteron at
early midgastrula stage. (H) Modern sea
urchin gastrulae (49). (I and J),
Fossils resembling modern spiralian
gastrulae; (K) Modern polychaete
embryos in which the dashed lines
indicate yolky endoderm cells and dots
represent mesoderm cells (Eupomatus,
left; Scoloplos, right, redrawn from
Anderson, ref. 50). In the fossils I
and J, the archenteron is thick-walled
(cf. cross section in C), and in J all
of the cells in the embryo, including
the ectodermal wall, are conspicuously
larger relative to the size of the
embryo. Note also the column of cells
along the archenteron in J. (Scale bars
represent 50 μm.) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.pnas.org/content/97/9
/4457/F3.large.jpg
evolve on Jellyfish(?).
("Charnia"). A member of the Cnidarnian
Anthozoans (sea pens, corals,
anemones).
Newfoundland
[1] Charnia wardi UNKNOWN
source: http://geol.queensu.ca/museum/im
ages/stories/calvert.jpg
[2] Figure 2 from: Guy M. Narbonne
and James G. Gehlin, ''Life after
snowball: The oldest complex Ediacaran
fossils'', Geology
2003;31;27-30 http://geology.gsapubs.or
g/content/31/1/27.full.pdf COPYRIGHTED
source: http://geology.gsapubs.org/conte
nt/31/1/27.full.pdf
{Lu-Fo-Tro-Ku-ZO-u} subgroup Trochozoa
evolve. Ancestor of all Bryozoans,
Nemerteans, Phoronids, Brachiopods
{BrA-KE-O-PoDZ}, Molluscs and Annelids.
[1] Figure from: Giribet, G. (2008).
Assembling the lophotrochozoan
(=spiralian) tree of life.
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society B: Biological Sciences , 363
(1496), 1513-1522. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2007.2241
http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/363/1496/1513 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://rstb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/363/1496/1513
[2] Timeline of phylogeny of animals,
figure 6 from: S. Blair Hedges, ''The
origin and evolution of model
organisms'', Nature Reviews Genetics 3,
838-849 (November
2002) http://www.nature.com/nrg/journal
/v3/n11/full/nrg929.html {Hedges_2002.p
df} a) The relationships and
divergence times (millions of years ago
(Mya) plusminus one standard error) of
selected model animals are shown, based
on recent multigene and multiprotein
studies51, 61, 84. The fossil
divergence time of birds and mammals
(310 Mya) was used to calibrate the
molecular clock. Branch lengths are not
proportional to time. b ) The
relationships and numbers of living
species, from a diversity of sources in
most of the main groups. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v452/n7188/images/nature06614-f1.2.
jpg
[1] a, Fertilized (?) egg with thick
membrane. b, Two-cell stage. c, d,
Four-cell stage, c and d show different
views of the same specimen,
illustrating the tetrahedral geometry.
e, Eight-cell stage. f, g, Later
cleavage stages showing faceted cell
geometry and, in g, the
three-dimensional distribution of
cells. h, i, Multicellular structures
that record later cleavage stages or,
especially possible for h, colonial
protists. Scale bar (in h): 200 mum for
a, e, f, g, h and i; 150 mum for b; and
240 mum for c and d. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v391/n6667/images/391553ae.tif.2.gi
f
Ancestor of all Echinoderms (iKIniDRMS
}, Hemichordates, and Chordates.
[1] English: This diagram is showing
the difference of the two major types
of coelomates: the protostomes
(molluscs, annelids, arthropods, ...)
and deuterostomes (echinoderms,
vertebrates, ...). These groups differ
in several characteristics of early
development; In deuterostomes blastula
devisions is called ''radial cleavage''
because it occurs parallel or
perpendicular to the major polar axis.
In protostomes the cleavage is called
''spirale'' because division planes are
oriented obliquely to the polar major
axis. During gastrulation, protostomes
embryos' mouth was given first by the
blastopore while the anus was formed
later and vis versa for the
deuterostomes. As examples :
Squids are protostomes. Sea
urchins are deuterostomes. Date
14 October 2009 Source Own
work Author WYassineMrabetTalk✉ CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Protovsdeuteros
tomes.svg/1000px-Protovsdeuterostomes.sv
g.png
[2] English: This diagram is showing
the difference of the two major types
of coelomates: the protostomes
(molluscs, annelids, arthropods, ...)
and deuterostomes (echinoderms,
vertebrates, ...). These groups differ
in several characteristics of early
development; In deuterostomes blastula
devisions is called ''radial cleavage''
because it occurs parallel or
perpendicular to the major polar axis.
In protostomes the cleavage is called
''spirale'' because division planes are
oriented obliquely to the polar major
axis. During gastrulation, protostomes
embryos' mouth was given first by the
blastopore while the anus was formed
later and vis versa for the
deuterostomes. As examples :
Squids are protostomes. Sea
urchins are deuterostomes. Date
14 October 2009 Source Own
work Author WYassineMrabetTalk✉ CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Protovsdeuteros
tomes.svg/1000px-Protovsdeuterostomes.sv
g.png
{KE-ToG-nutu} evolve (Arrow Worms).
Earliest teeth. Animals start to eat
other animals.
The evolution of teeth and animal
predation starts an "arms race" that
rapidly transforms ecosystems around
the Earth. Teeth and shells evolve as
advantages to survival.
[1] Chaetognatha UNKNOWN
source: http://content5.eol.org/content/
2010/08/09/03/74200_large.jpg
[2] Description Chatognath
Spadella cephaloptera Date
Unkown Source Own
work Author
Zatelmar Permission (Reusing
this file) See below. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/8e/Chaetoblack.png
{Lu-Fo-Tro-Ku-ZO-u} subgroup Platyzoa
{PlaT-i-ZO-u} evolves. Ancestor of
rotifers, gastrotrichs and
Platyhelminthes (flatworms).
[1] Figure 1 from: Giribet, G. (2008).
Assembling the lophotrochozoan
(=spiralian) tree of life.
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society B: Biological Sciences , 363
(1496), 1513-1522. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2007.2241
Figure 1 Hypothesis of metazoan
relationships based on multiple sources
of morphology and molecules. This tree
has not been generated by a consensus
or other numerical technique and
reflects the views and biases of the
author. Protostomes are divided into
two sister clades, Ecdysozoa and
Lophotrochozoa, the latter divided into
Platyzoa and Trochozoa; affinities of
Chaetognatha and Cycliophora are left
unresolved. Boxed phyla are those for
which genomic or EST data are publicly
available (as of July 2007); note the
poor representation of lophotrochozoan
genomic data. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://rstb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/363/1496/1513/F1.large.jp
g
[2] Description English: Bedford's
Flatworm (Pseudobiceros bedfordi) in
Fihalhohi, Maldives. Date March
2006 Source photographed by Jan
Derk Author Jan
Derk Permission (Reusing this file)
PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/76/Bedford%27s_Flatworm.
jpg
("Hemichordates") evolve (pterobranchs
{TARuBrANKS}, acorn worms).
Adult Pterobranchs are sessile,
fastening to solid structures, but the
younger (or larval) form is free
swimming, and is thought to have
retained this form before evolving into
tunicates and then the first fish.
[1] Description Eichelwurm, Exemplar
aus der Sammlung des Institutes für
Zoologie, FU Berlin. GNU
FDL Date Source Foto:
de:Benutzer:Necrophorus Author User
Necrophorus on
de.wikipedia Permission (Reusing
this file) Released under the GNU Free
Documentation License. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Eichelwurm.jpg/
1024px-Eichelwurm.jpg
[2] Pterobranchs Resembling slugs
with hairy, branching tentacles,
Pterobranchs filter food from the water
and form colonies of “clones,” much
like coral polyps, often secreting a
network of hard tubing. Individual
zooids can crawl about freely within
the colony, but are connected to one
another by thin “cables,” quickly
retracting if disturbed. What makes the
Pterobranchs even stranger than corals
is that these slimy, slithering weirdos
are “hemichordates,” closer to us
vertebrates than to invertebrates like
worms and jellyfish. Read more:
http://www.toptenz.net/top-10-colonial-o
rganisms.php#ixzz1lJRtH61S COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.toptenz.net/wp-conten
t/uploads/2011/10/Pterobranch-colonial-o
rganisms.jpg
("Echinoderms" (iKIniDRMS }) (sea
cucumbers, sea urchins, sand dollars,
star fish).
[1] Kachemak Bay National Estuarine
Research Reserve. A beautiful array of
starfish , sea urchins and mussel
shells in the rocky intertidal zone of
Kachemak Bay. Image ID: nerr0878,
NOAA National Estuarine Research
Reserve Collection from NOAA:
http://www.photolib.noaa.gov/nerr/nerr08
78.htm PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Nerr0878.jpg/10
24px-Nerr0878.jpg
[2] Description English: The first
in a sequence of three photos that show
a brittle star flipping itself
rightside-up. Date 1 May
2011 Source Own work Author
Alexcooper1 CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/A_brittle_star_
flipping_itself_rightside-up.jpg/1024px-
A_brittle_star_flipping_itself_rightside
-up.jpg
evolves. Chordates are a very large
group that include all tunicates
{TUNiKiTS}, fishes, amphibians,
reptiles, mammals, and birds. The most
primitive living chordate is the
tunicate. Chordates get their name from
the notochord, the cartilage rod that
runs along the back of the animal, in
the embryo if not in the adult.
[1] [t Note that this is a vertebrate -
not a pre-vertebrate chordate] Portion
of figure from: D.-G. Shu, S. Conway
Morris, J. Han, Z.-F. Zhang, K. Yasui,
P. Janvier, L. Chen, X.-L. Zhang, J.-N.
Liu, Y. Li and H.-Q. Liu, ''Head and
backbone of the Early Cambrian
vertebrate Haikouichthys'', Nature
421, 526-529(30 January
2003) http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v421/n6922/full/nature01264.html CO
PYRIGHTED
source: https://nature.com/journal/v421/
n6922/images/nature01264-f1.2.jpg
[2] Figure from: D.-G. Shu, S. Conway
Morris, J. Han, Z.-F. Zhang, K. Yasui,
P. Janvier, L. Chen, X.-L. Zhang, J.-N.
Liu, Y. Li and H.-Q. Liu, ''Head and
backbone of the Early Cambrian
vertebrate Haikouichthys'', Nature
421, 526-529(30 January
2003) http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v421/n6922/full/nature01264.html CO
PYRIGHTED
source: https://nature.com/journal/v421/
n6922/images/nature01264-f1.2.jpg
Tunicates {TUNiKiTS} evolve (sea
squirts).
[1] Description Clavelina
moluccensis, the bluebell
tunicate English: Tunicate colony.
(Clavelina moluccensis) Date
04/17/05 Source Own
work Author Nhobgood CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/98/Bluebell_tunicates_Ni
ck_Hobgood.jpg
[2] Timeline of phylogeny of animals,
figure 6 from: S. Blair Hedges, ''The
origin and evolution of model
organisms'', Nature Reviews Genetics 3,
838-849 (November
2002) http://www.nature.com/nrg/journal
/v3/n11/full/nrg929.html {Hedges_2002.p
df} a) The relationships and
divergence times (millions of years ago
(Mya) plusminus one standard error) of
selected model animals are shown, based
on recent multigene and multiprotein
studies51, 61, 84. The fossil
divergence time of birds and mammals
(310 Mya) was used to calibrate the
molecular clock. Branch lengths are not
proportional to time. b ) The
relationships and numbers of living
species, from a diversity of sources in
most of the main groups. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nrg/journa
l/v3/n11/images/nrg929-f6.jpg
cnidarian anthozoans).
Guizhou Province, South China
[1] Figure 3 Sinocyclocyclicus
guizhouensis, tabulate fossils
interpreted as possible stem
cnidarians. (A) SEM of branched tube
preserved as phosphatic internal molds
of tube chambers; note branching
pattern as well as wedge-shaped chamber
formed where an incomplete and complete
cross-wall meet (arrow). (B) SEM of
four clustered tubes. (C) SEM of curved
tube. (D and E) Cross and longitudinal
sections through this specimen. (F) An
enlarged SEM view of the surface,
showing cross-walls, phosphatic laminae
on the wall, and a longitudinal ridge
on the concave side. (G)
Saffordophyllum newcombae, an
Ordovician tabulate showing bending and
thickening of cross-walls where they
meet side walls, as well as apical
budding (reproduced with permission
from Ref. 36); compare with Figs.
Figs.22E and 3A. (The scale bar in A
represents 140 μm for A; 200 μm for
B; 150 μm for C; 80 μm for D and E;
30 μm for F; and 1 mm for
G.) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/core
/lw/2.0/html/tileshop_pmc/tileshop_pmc_i
nline.html?title=An%20external%20file%20
that%20holds%20a%20picture%2C%20illustra
tion%2C%20etc.%0AObject%20name%20is%20pq
2504916003.jpg%20%5BObject%20name%20is%2
0pq2504916003.jpg%5D&p=PMC3&id=17636_pq2
504916003.jpg
Adelaide) Australia
[1] from adelaide, australia
source: http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/t
ech/3208583.stm
[1] Lancelet (Branchiostoma
lanceolatum) Description
Branchiostoma lanceolatum (Pallas,
1774) English: Amphioxus from course
sandy sediments (600µm) on the Belgian
continental shelf. Length: ~22
mm. Geo-location not applicable as the
picture was taken in the
lab. Français : Branchiostoma
lanceolatum, un céphalochordé,
récolté dans des sédiments de sable
grossier (600µm) sur le Plateau
continental belge. Longueur totale: 22
mm environ. Date 1997 Source
Own work Author (Hans
Hillewaert) CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/47/Branchiostoma_lanceol
atum.jpg
{laNSleTS} (also called amphioxus
{aMFEoKSeS}). First liver and kidney.
Lancelets are the most primitive
chordates to have a liver and a kidney,
which are not found in hemichordates or
tunicates.
[1] Lancelet (Branchiostoma
lanceolatum) Description
Branchiostoma lanceolatum (Pallas,
1774) English: Amphioxus from course
sandy sediments (600µm) on the Belgian
continental shelf. Length: ~22
mm. Geo-location not applicable as the
picture was taken in the
lab. Français : Branchiostoma
lanceolatum, un céphalochordé,
récolté dans des sédiments de sable
grossier (600µm) sur le Plateau
continental belge. Longueur totale: 22
mm environ. Date 1997 Source
Own work Author (Hans
Hillewaert) CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/47/Branchiostoma_lanceol
atum.jpg
[2] Lancelet COPYRIGHTED
source: http://kentsimmons.uwinnipeg.ca/
16cm05/1116/34-04b-Lancelet.jpg
[1] A complete specimen of
Odontogriphus omalus that shows the
overall shape of the fossil, the
position of the radula feeding
structure at the head end, and paired
salivary glands, the darker circular
structures on either side of the
radula. (Copyright Caron et. al,
Nature 2006) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.cbc.ca/gfx/images/new
s/photos/2006/07/12/ROM57720mod060712.jp
g
[2] Marianne Collins's reconstruction
of a colony of Odontogriphus omalus
grazing on cyanobacterium. (Copyright
Caron et. al, Nature
2006) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.cbc.ca/gfx/images/new
s/photos/2006/07/12/mariannecollins06071
2.jpg
skeleton).
Earliest evidence of animals eating
other animals (predation).
Appearance of the small
shelly fossils and deep burrows
correlated with a decline in
stromatolites possibly from feeding.
The earliest animal shells are made by
tiny organisms with simple tubelike
skeletons, such as Cloudina and
Sinotubulites in addition to sponge
skeleton fossils.
The shell of Cloudina is made of
Calcium carbonate (CaCO3), possibly
made by some kind of worm.
Predatory bore holes have been found in
Cloudina shells. This is the oldest
evidence of predation known.
Ningqiang County, Shaanxi
Province
[1] Cloudina COPYRIGHTED
source: http://palaeos.com/proterozoic/n
eoproterozoic/ediacaran/images/Cloudina.
jpg
[2] Cloudina from: HONG HUA, BRIAN R.
PRATT, and LU-YI ZHANG, ''Borings in
Cloudina Shells: Complex Predator-Prey
Dynamics in the Terminal
Neoproterozoic'', PALAIOS, October
2003, v. 18, p. 454-459,
doi:10.1669/0883-1351(2003)018<0454:BICSCP>2.0.CO;2
http://palaios.geoscienceworld.org/citmg
r?gca=palaios;18/4-5/454 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://palaios.geoscienceworld.o
rg/content/vol18/issue4-5/images/large/i
0883-1351-018-04-0454-f03.jpeg
shows the chordate line separating from
echinoderm line here at 550 mybn (first
chordates).
{aSKHeLmiNtEZ} (worms: nematodes and
priapulids).
[1] Description English: Priapulid
worm Priapulus caudatus in a Petry
dish. The specimen was found in the
intertidal of the Russian coast of the
Barents Sea. Русский:
Приапулида Priapulus caudatus
в чашке Петри. Особь
найдена в
приливно-отливной
зоне на российском
побережье Баренцева
моря. Date between 2005 and
2007 Source kindly granted by the
author Author Dmitry
Aristov Permission (Reusing this
file) See below. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/62/Priapulus_caudatus.jp
g
[2] Giribet, G. (2008). Assembling the
lophotrochozoan (=spiralian) tree of
life. Philosophical Transactions of the
Royal Society B: Biological Sciences ,
363 (1496), 1513-1522. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2007.2241
http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/363/1496/1513 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://rstb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/363/1496/1513
[1] A rotifer. The cilia around
this rotifer's mouth are unusually
long; they reach as far as the strand
of spirogyra to the right. 10×
objective, 15× eyepiece. The numbered
ticks on the scale are 122 µM apart.
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencephoto.com/imag
e/121893/530wm/C0058380-Rotifer_SEM-SPL.
jpg
[2] Figure from: Giribet, G. (2008).
Assembling the lophotrochozoan
(=spiralian) tree of life.
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society B: Biological Sciences , 363
(1496), 1513-1522. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2007.2241
http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/363/1496/1513 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/a/ad/20090917_013641_Rotifer.jp
g
skeletal cone and spicules that date to
560-550 million years old.
This sponge is named Coronacollina
acula, and is similar to the Cambrian
Choia, a low conical demosponge with a
corona of long spicules. This Ediacaran
organism represents the oldest
multicellular organism with structural
support through either
biomineralization or chitin.
Assemblage) Nilpena, South
Australia
[1] A reconstruction of what
Coronacollina acula may have looked
like. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://msnbcmedia1.msn.com/j/MSN
BC/Components/Photo/_new/120308-Oldest1P
hoto-hmed-0305.grid-6x2.jpg
[2] The ancient animal Coronacollina
acula, with the round depression in the
middle representing its body, while the
four lines radiating from it were its
needlelike ''spicules.'' (Scale bar is
in centimeters.) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://msnbcmedia2.msn.com/j/MSN
BC/Components/Photo/_new/120308-OldestPh
oto-hmed-0305.grid-6x2.jpg
[1] Description English: Phoronis
hippocrepis photographed in shallow
water in Italy. Photo by Maria Grazia
Montanucci. Date Source Own
work Author
Etrusko25 Permission (Reusing
this file) See below. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/52/Phoronis_Maria_Grazia
_Montanucci2.jpg
[2] Timeline of phylogeny of animals,
figure 6 from: S. Blair Hedges, ''The
origin and evolution of model
organisms'', Nature Reviews Genetics 3,
838-849 (November
2002) http://www.nature.com/nrg/journal
/v3/n11/full/nrg929.html {Hedges_2002.p
df} a) The relationships and
divergence times (millions of years ago
(Mya) plusminus one standard error) of
selected model animals are shown, based
on recent multigene and multiprotein
studies51, 61, 84. The fossil
divergence time of birds and mammals
(310 Mya) was used to calibrate the
molecular clock. Branch lengths are not
proportional to time. b ) The
relationships and numbers of living
species, from a diversity of sources in
most of the main groups. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://rstb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/363/1496/1513
(brachiopods {BrAKEOPoDZ}).
Brachiopods are marine invertebrates
that have bivalve dorsal and ventral
shells enclosing a pair of tentacled,
armlike structures that are used to
sweep minute food particles into the
mouth. Also called lampshells.
[1] Brachiopod UNKNOWN
source: http://paleo.cortland.edu/tutori
al/Brachiopods/Brachiopod%20Images/lingu
la.GIF
[2] Brachiopods (Glottidia
Albida) Photographic Print by Richard
Herrmann item #: 357011759A UNKNOWN
source: http://cache2.artprintimages.com
/lrg/38/3813/HHRIF00Z.jpg
[1] Barentsa discreta(Barentsiidae)
Japanese name:Suzukokemusi
Date;2007,05,18;Tanabe city, Wakayama
prefecture, Japan
Author;Keisotyo GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f9/Barentsa_discreta_suz
ukokemusi02.jpg
[2] Figure from: Giribet, G. (2008).
Assembling the lophotrochozoan
(=spiralian) tree of life.
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society B: Biological Sciences , 363
(1496), 1513-1522. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2007.2241
http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/363/1496/1513 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://rstb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/363/1496/1513
[1] Figure from: Martin Brasier, Owen
Green and Graham Shields, ''Ediacarian
sponge spicule clusters from
southwestern Mongolia and the origins
of the Cambrian fauna'', Geology
1997;25;303-306. http://geology.gsapubs
.org/content/25/4/303.full.pdf COPYRIGH
TED
source: http://geology.gsapubs.org/conte
nt/25/4/303.full.pdf
[2] Figure from: Zhe Chen, Jie Hu,
Chuanming Zhou, Shuhai Xiao and Xunlai
Yuan, ''Sponge fossil assemblage from
the Early Cambrian Hetang Formation in
southern Anhui'', Chinese Science
Bulletin Volume 49, Number 15, August
2004, 1625-1628. DOI:
10.1007/BF03184133 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/k88wv4712005683u/ COPYR
IGHTED
source: http://www.springerlink.com/cont
ent/k88wv4712005683u/
are repeated serially, for example
vertebrae).
Some think that segmentation evolved
independently in arthropods, annelid
worms, vertebrates. The universality of
Hox genes, evolved over 350 million
years earlier, implies that
segmentation may have occurred earlier
and that all segmented species may
share a common segmented ancestor.
(Note that both animals and plants
display segmentation - developing a
series of repetitive segments.)
(Determine time and supporting
evidence, give more details about
segmentation.)
[1] Dikinsonia grew to a length of as
much as two feet (60 cm), which made it
one of the larger complex organisms of
the Vendian. It's body is segmented
with midline symmetry dividing it's
body. Its body may have been denser
than modern jellyfish or worms. [Atlas
of Prehistoric World, Discovery
Books Reconstruction of Dickinsonia,
based on images from Atlas of the
Prehistoric World, Discovery Channel
Books and Kingfisher Illustrated
Dinosaur Encyclopedia UNKNOWN
source: http://paleontology.edwardtbabin
ski.us/vendian/dickinsonia.jpg
[2] Spriggina Spriggina was
definitely a predator of the seas of
that time. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.museum.toulouse.fr/IM
G/jpg/spriginna_72dpi_680.jpg
animals).
[1] Freshwater bryozoan from a lake in
NC, USA. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b9/Freshwater_Bryozoan23
4.JPG
[2] Figure from: Giribet, G. (2008).
Assembling the lophotrochozoan
(=spiralian) tree of life.
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society B: Biological Sciences , 363
(1496), 1513-1522. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2007.2241
http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/363/1496/1513 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://rstb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/363/1496/1513
the Proterozoic and start of the
Phanerozoic {FaNReZOiK} Eon, and the
start of the Cambrian Period.
[1] Geologic Time Scale 2009 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.geosociety.org/scienc
e/timescale/timescl.pdf
(Parvancorina and Spriggina).
[1] Description thumb
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/4f/Spriggina_flounensi_C
.jpg
[2] left
source: http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/ven
dian/spriggina.gif
"Cambrian explosion"), the rapid
diversification of multicellular
animals between 542 and 530 million
years ago that results in the
appearance of many (between 20 and 35)
of the major phyla of animals. An
increase of animals with shells.
It was once thought that the Cambrian
rocks contained the first and oldest
fossil animals, but these are now to be
found in the earlier Ediacaran (or
Vendian) strata. Ediacaran animals are
soft-bodied and so are infrequently
preserved. When animals begin to
develop hard parts, their probability
of preservation greatly improves.
Two fossil locations preserve this
period on Earth, the Burgess Shale in
British Columbia Canada, and the
Chengjiang in the Yunnan Province of
China. The Burgess Shale fossils were
discovered in 1909 by Charles D.
Wolcott (CE 1850-1927), and are shiny
black impressions on the shale bedding
planes. Many are the remains of animals
that lacked hard parts. Altogether
there are four major groups of
arthropods (trilobites, crustaceans,
and the groups that include scorpions
and insects), in addition to sponges,
onycophorans, crinoids, mollusks, three
phyla of worms, corals, chordates, and
many species that cannot be placed in
any known phylum. The Chengjiang Fauna
resemble that of the Burgess Shale, but
the Chengjiang fossils are older and
better preserved. The fossils include
many soft-bodied animals that are not
usually not preserved. For example
jellyfish show the detailed structure
of tentacles, radial canals, and
muscles, and on soft-bodies worms,
eyes, segmentation, digestive organs,
and patterns on the outer skin can be
recognized. The Chengjiang fossils
include the earliest fossil of a fish.
One theory is that the Cambrian
metazoan radiation is the result of a
major increase in atmospheric oxygen
after the retreat of the Varangian
glaciers. Another theory is that the
Cambrian radiation is triggered by
predation, since the oldest traces of
feeding within the mud occur around
this time in addition to the various
ways to protect the body by secretion
of a mineral skeleton or building tubes
by collected mineral grains that are
developed by animals around this time.
[1] Artist drawing of the bottom of the
Cambrian shallow sea floor, showing
trilobites (imagine these crawling
around on the Cambrian sea floor at
Devil's Lake state park 550 m.y. ago!)
(above). UNKNOWN
source: http://www.geology.wisc.edu/home
pages/g100s2/public_html/Geologic_Time/L
3_Cambrian_Life_More.jpg
[2] Description English: Fossil
specimen of Opabinia regalis from the
Burgess shale on display at the
Smithsonian in Washington, DC. This
appears to be the exact specimen
pictured in Fig. 42 of 'The Crucible of
Creation: The Burgess Shale and the
Rise of Animals', by Simon Conway
Morris, Oxford University Press,
1998. Date 12 April 2009 (original
upload date) Source Transferred
from en.wikipedia; transferred to
Commons by User:FunkMonk using
CommonsHelper. Author Original
uploader was Jstuby at en.wikipedia PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/50/Opabinia_smithsonian.
JPG
sponges).
[1]
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/porifera/ar
chaeo.html
source: http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/por
ifera/archaeo.html
[2]
http://www.geology.ucdavis.edu/~cowen/Hi
storyofLife/CH05images.html
source: http://www.geology.ucdavis.edu/~
cowen/HistoryofLife/CH05images.html
{PlaTEheLmiNtEZ} evolve (flatworms).
[1] Description English: The
flatworm Pseudoceros dimidiatus. North
Horn, Osprey Reef, Coral Sea. Date
August 9, 2005 Source
Flickr Author Richard
Ling CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1e/Pseudoceros_dimidiatu
s.jpg
[2] Two turbellarians mating by penis
fencing. Each has two penises, the
white spikes on the undersides of their
heads. Description English: Two
Individuals of Pseudobiceros bedfordi
about to have a Sperm Battle. –
Species of the flatworm genus
Pseudobiceros are hermaphroditic and
have two penises that are used to
inject sperm into the partner. P.
bedfordi is exceptional in that it
applies sperm onto the partner's skin
rather than injecting it. Deutsch:
Zwei Plattwürmer (Pseudobiceros
bedfordi) vor der Begattung. Der
doppelte Penis ist bei beiden
Individuen gut sichtbar. Date
Published: 2004-06-15 Source
Whitfield J: Everything You Always
Wanted to Know about Sexes. PLoS Biol
2/6/2004: e183.
doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.0020183.g001,
photo page Author Photo courtesy
of Nico Michiels. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/38/Flatworm_sex.png
{GaSTreTriKS}.
[1] Description English: Darkfield
photograph of a gastrotrich. Taken
through a 10x ocular and 10x objective
with a Pentax *ist DL at 1/180th with
an understage flash. Date 18
April 2006 Source
en:Image:Gastrotrich.jpg Author
Jasper Nance GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6d/Gastrotrich.jpg
[2] Figure from: Giribet, G. (2008).
Assembling the lophotrochozoan
(=spiralian) tree of life.
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society B: Biological Sciences , 363
(1496), 1513-1522. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2007.2241
http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/363/1496/1513 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://rstb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/363/1496/1513
(blood cells actively moved by muscle
contraction) evolves in bilaterians.
Circulatory systems can be divided into
two kinds, "open" and "closed". In an
open circulatory system, the blood and
body cavity fluid are one and the same;
the blood empties from vessels into the
body cavity (hemocoel) and directly
bathes organs. In a closed circulatory
system blood is kept separate from the
coelomic {SElomiK} fluid.
[1] From: Ruppert, Fox, Barnes,
''Invertebrate Zoology'',
2004. COPYRIGHTED
source: Ruppert, Fox, Barnes,
"Invertebrate Zoology", 2004.
[2] From: Ruppert, Fox, Barnes,
''Invertebrate Zoology'',
2004. COPYRIGHTED
source: Ruppert, Fox, Barnes,
"Invertebrate Zoology", 2004.
bilaterians.
Nemerteans, cylindrical worms evolved
from an earlier ancestor, have a
network of blood channels in the
mesenchyme (undifferentiated tissue
between organs) but have no heart or
pumping vessel. Some surviving
coelomates have a series of channels or
blood spaces outside the coelom tissue,
that form a circulatory system, often
with muscle cell contractible walls
connected to the larger vessels that
act as pumps to move the blood cells
through the channels. (verify muscle
cells) This organism, a mollusc, has a
heart. (state organism with earliest
known heart- gastropods?)
[1] From: Ruppert, Fox, Barnes,
''Invertebrate Zoology'',
2004. COPYRIGHTED
source: Ruppert, Fox, Barnes,
"Invertebrate Zoology", 2004.
[2] From: Ruppert, Fox, Barnes,
''Invertebrate Zoology'',
2004. COPYRIGHTED
source: Ruppert, Fox, Barnes,
"Invertebrate Zoology", 2004.
(ribbon worms).
[1] Description English: Basiodiscus
mexicanus was photographed at Los
Arcos, near Puerto Vallarta,
Mexico Date Source University
of California Museum of Paleology:
Introduction to the Nemertini Author
Chris Meyer and Allen
Collins Permission (Reusing this
file) See below. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/49/Nemertea_Basiodiscus_
mexicanus.png
[2] Timeline of phylogeny of animals,
figure 6 from: S. Blair Hedges, ''The
origin and evolution of model
organisms'', Nature Reviews Genetics 3,
838-849 (November
2002) http://www.nature.com/nrg/journal
/v3/n11/full/nrg929.html {Hedges_2002.p
df} a) The relationships and
divergence times (millions of years ago
(Mya) plusminus one standard error) of
selected model animals are shown, based
on recent multigene and multiprotein
studies51, 61, 84. The fossil
divergence time of birds and mammals
(310 Mya) was used to calibrate the
molecular clock. Branch lengths are not
proportional to time. b ) The
relationships and numbers of living
species, from a diversity of sources in
most of the main groups. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://rstb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/363/1496/1513
The phylum Mollusca is the second
largest animal phylum after the
arthropods, and is divided into seven
classes, three of which (Gastropoda
{GaSTroPeDu} (snails), Bivalvia (clams
and muscles), and Cephalopoda
{SeFeloPeDu} (squids and octupuses))
are of major significance.
[1] From: Ruppert, E.E., Fox, R.S.,
and Barnes, R.D. (2004). Invertebrate
Zoology (7 ed.). Brooks / Cole. pp.
284–291. ISBN 0030259827. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mol
lusca
[2] Description Clams Date
Source Own work Author
Marlith CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/8f/Clams.JPG
"Arthropods" evolve (includes
crustaceans and insects).
Arthropods can be compared to a
segmented worm encased in a rigid
exoskeleton.
The phylum Arthropoda is the largest
phylum in the animal kingdom.
Arthropods include the insects, the
Chelicerata (arachnids and horseshoe
crabs), the crustaceans and the
trilobites. All arthropods have a
segmented body covered by an
exoskeleton containing chitin, which
serves as both armor and as a surface
for muscle attachment.
[1] Extinct and modern
arthropods English: Arthropoda
collage. From left to right and from
top to bottom: Kolihapeltis,
Stylonurus, Scorpion, Crab, Centipede,
Butterfly CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/80/Arthropoda.jpg
[2] Figure from: Giribet, G. (2008).
Assembling the lophotrochozoan
(=spiralian) tree of life.
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society B: Biological Sciences , 363
(1496), 1513-1522. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2007.2241
http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/363/1496/1513 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://rstb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/363/1496/1513
(onychophorans) evolve. Onychophorans
are a transition between worms and
arthropods: they have segmented
worm-like bodies but they also have
jointed appendages, antennae, and shed
their cuticle like arthropods do.
[1] Euperipatoides kanangrensis on a
eucalyptus log, in which it normally
resides. Description English:
Cropped version of File:Euperipatoides
kanangrensis.jpg Date 13 October
2009 CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/67/Euperipatoides_kanang
rensis_crop.jpg
[2] Figure from: Giribet, G. (2008).
Assembling the lophotrochozoan
(=spiralian) tree of life.
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society B: Biological Sciences , 363
(1496), 1513-1522. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2007.2241
http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/363/1496/1513 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://rstb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/363/1496/1513
{ToRDiGRADZ}.
[1] Description Willow Gabriel and
Bob Goldstein,
http://tardigrades.bio.unc.edu/ Date
2007-05-20 (original upload
date) CC
source: http://28.media.tumblr.com/tumbl
r_limfh2NXtC1qc6j5yo1_400.jpg
[2] from Giribet 2007
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/65/Hypsibiusdujardini.jp
g
worms).
[1] An earthworm's clitellum they have
a unique reproductive organ, the
ring-shaped clitellum (''pack saddle'')
round their bodies, which produces a
cocoon that stores and nourishes
fertilized eggs until they
hatch Description Regenwurm mit
Clitellum - (sattelförmige Verdickung
im vorderen Drittel).Das Sekret der
Clitellum-Drüsen dient u. a. zur
Bildung dieses Ei-Kokons. Français :
Ver de terre (Oligochaeta,
Lumbricina) Svenska: Daggmask
(Lumbricus spec.) Русский:
Дождевой червь (род
Лумбрикус) Date Source
first upload in de wikipedia on
09:58, 16. Feb 2005 by Michael
Linnenbach Author Michael
Linnenbach GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/30/Regenwurm1.jpg
[2] Figure from: Giribet, G. (2008).
Assembling the lophotrochozoan
(=spiralian) tree of life.
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society B: Biological Sciences , 363
(1496), 1513-1522. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2007.2241
http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/363/1496/1513 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://rstb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/363/1496/1513
Subphylum contains most fishes, and all
amphibians, reptiles, mammals, and
birds.
The characteristic features of the
Vertebrata are a vertebral column, or
backbone, and a cranium, which protects
the central nervous system (brain and
spinal cord) and major sense organs.
Vertebrates evolved from a lower
chordate similar to the present-day
Cephalochordata (lancelets).
Vertebrates originate in fresh water
and develop a kidney as their organ of
water balance. The main line of
evolution in the vertebrates which
leads to the tetrapods remains in fresh
waters, however, several vertebrate
lines invade the oceans.
[1] Description Lampetra
fluviatilis from the german
northsea Date 2004 Source
Germany Author
M.Buschmann Permission (Reusing
this file) Author is owner CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3f/Lampetra_fluviatilis.
jpg
[2] Description Clockwise,
starting from top left: 1. Fire
Salamander (Salamandra salamandra) 2.
Saltwater Crocodile (Crocodylus
porosus) 3. Southern Cassowary
(Casusarius casuarius) 4.
Black-and-rufus Giant Elephant Shrew
(Rhynchocyon petersi) 5. Ocean Sunfish
(Mola mola) Date CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/ec/Vertebrates.png
evolve.
[1] Description Lampetra
fluviatilis from the german
northsea Date 2004 Source
Germany Author
M.Buschmann Permission (Reusing
this file) Author is owner CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3f/Lampetra_fluviatilis.
jpg
[2] Fossil Ostracoderms.
Representatives of three extinct
groups. The head armor is especially
well developed in Hemicyclaspis, an
ostracoderm of the ''Cephalapsis''
type, in which the head is flattened
and expanded into a large
filter-feeding basket. Ostracoderms
lacked the paired (pectoral and pelvic)
fins of more advanced fish. In some
cases, small spines were present at the
points where paired fins develop in
higher fishes. In Hemicyclaspis, one
sees a pair of anterior, flipper-like
structures in lieu of pectoral fins.
From Romer, A. S. 1964. The Vertebrate
Body. W. B. Saunders.
Philadelphia. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.blc.arizona.edu/cours
es/schaffer/182/Vertebrates/Ostracoderms
.jpg
fossil.
Haikouichthys ercaicunensis: About 25
mm in length.
China
[1] Figure 4 The Lower Cambrian
agnathan vertebrate Haikouichthys
ercaicunensis Luo, Hu & Shu gen. et sp.
nov. from Haikou, Yunnan. Specimen
HZ-f-12-127. a, Entire specimen,
anterior to the left; more posterior
region appears to fade out into
sediment, possibly representing decay
of body;attempts to excavate this area
were not successful. Scale bar
equivalent to 5 mm. b, Detail of
anterior to show putative gill bars,
possible elements of cranial
endoskeleton, and pericardic area;
scale bar equivalent to 5 mm. c,
Camera-lucida drawing of specimen to
show interpretation. Numbers 1-6
indicate units of the branchial basket
that are identified with some
confidence; ?A-?C refer to less secure
identifications. Two possible areas
representing the pericardic cavity are
indicated. To the anterior of ?C a
triangular area with patches of
diagenetic mineralization is one
possibility; a fainter region to the
posterior is the alternative location.
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v402/n6757/images/402042ad.tif.2.gi
f
[2] Reconstruction of the early
Cambrian craniate Myllokunmingia (12).
(Copyright 1999 John
Sibbick). COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v402/n6757/fig_tab/402042a0_F4.html
Pterobranch "graptolite".
Yunnan Province, China
[1] This is the detail of
525-million-year-old hemichordate.
(Credit: Professor Derek Siveter,
Oxford University) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.sciencedaily.com/2
011/03/110324153024-large.jpg
Trilobites are numerous extinct marine
arthropods of the Paleozoic Era.
Trilobites have a segmented body
divided by grooves into three vertical
lobes and are found as fossils
throughout the world.
There is a transition, after the
soft-bodied (unshelled) organisms of
the Ediacaran are the earliest small
cylindrical shells of Cloudina and
Sinotubulites, later in the
Proterozoic, to the clam-like shells of
the brachiopods in the Tommotian (Early
Cambrian) to the segmented calcite and
chitin shells of the trilobites in the
Atdabianian.
[1] example of earliest trilobites
(e.g., Fallotaspis longa) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.trilobites.info/biost
ratfallon.jpg
[2] Niles Eldredge, ''Trilobites and
Evolutionary Patterns'', p305-332 in
Anthony Hallam, ''Patterns of evolution
as illustrated by the fossil record,
Volume 5'', 1977,
p322. http://books.google.com/books?id=
q7GjDIyyWegC COPYRIGHTED
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=q7GjDIyyWegC
Hetang Formation, Southern China.
[1] A hexactinellid sponge from the
Hetang Formation. Reconstruction on the
left (scale bar = 5 cm). Photos
courtesy of Xunlai Yuan.
source: http://www.geol.vt.edu/paleo/Xia
o/
Chaetognath {KETOnat} (arrow worm).
The fossil is a member of the phylum
Chaetognatha (also called arrow worm),
with only about 100 living species, is
found in oceans throughout the world
and plays an important role in the food
web as primary predators
Kunming, China
[1] Figure 1 The Lower Cambrian arrow
wormEognathacantha ercainella gen. et
sp. nov., from the Maotianshan Shale,
near Ercai Village, Haikou, near
Kunming (South, China). (A) Ventral
view of the holotype (EC02001a). (B)
Enlargement of the head. Grasping
spines, white arrows; teeth, red
arrows. (C) Counterpart of holotype
(EC01001b). (D) Enlargement of (C).
Scale bar: 5 mm in (A) and (C); 2 mm in
(B) and (D). COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/298/5591/187/F1.large.jpg
[2] Description Chatognath
Spadella cephaloptera Date
Unkown Source Own
work Author
Zatelmar Permission (Reusing
this file) See below. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/8e/Chaetoblack.png
fossils, Helicoplacus.
Helicoplacoids are stem group
echinoderms with spiral plating and
three ambulacra arranged radially
around a lateral mouth. They are the
most primitive echinoderms and the
first to show a radial arrangement of
the water vascular and ambulacral
systems.
USA
[1] Description English: Helicoplacus
(Echinodermata:Helicoplacoidea) Date
1993 Source http://www.usna.edu/Users
/oceano/pguth/website/pl00001.htm Aut
hor Durham, J.W. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/de/Helicoplacus.jpg
[2] Figure from Prothero, ''Evolution
What the Fossils Say and Why It
Matters'', 2007, p203. COPYRIGHTED
source: Prothero, "Evolution What the
Fossils Say and Why It Matters", 2007,
p203.
Crustaceans (shrimps, crabs, lobsters,
barnicles).
England
[1] Canadaspis perfecta (ROM 61119) –
Part and counterpart. Complete specimen
showing phosphatized gut diverticulae
and posterior dark stain (probably
representing decay fluids), lateral
view. Left images, complete slab (part)
showing associated species; Yohoia
tenuis (bottom right), Waptia
fieldensis (left, partially covered by
a disarticulated carapace of
Canadaspis), Burgessia bella (far
left). Right images, details of the
counterpart. Specimen length = 72 mm.
Specimen dry – direct light (top
row), dry – polarized light (bottom
left), wet – polarized light (bottom
right). Walcott Quarry. © Royal
Ontario Museum. Photos: Jean-Bernard
Caron COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.burgess-shale.rom.on.
ca/images/zoomify/canadaspis-rom-61119.j
pg
[2] 3D model of Canadaspis
perfecta. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://burgess-shale.rom.on.ca/v
ideo/fossil-gallery/0b1-canadaspis-turnt
able.jpg
described as lobopod) fossil, from
Burgess shale.
source: 1 & 2
http://www.nmnh.si.edu/paleo/shale/paysh
ia.htm
source: 3
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/onychoph/on
ychophorafr.html
shale.
[1]
source: http://www.nmnh.si.edu/paleo/sha
le/pchoia.htm
[2]
source:
Shale.
[1] Ottoia, showing muscle bands and
gut. Ottoia is a priapulid worm found
commonly in the Burgess Shale. It was
carnivorous, and probably lived in a
burrow like modern priapulids. This
specimen has been wetted and oriented
to reflect the light, in order to show
a delicate irridescent film which
preserves details of muscle bands, the
gut, and even the small hooks at one
end of the worm (on the right --
unfortunately out of focus). Walcott
quarry.
source: http://www.geo.ucalgary.ca/~macr
ae/Burgess_Shale/Ottoia_muscle.gif
[2] Phylum
Priapulida Ottoia Priapulid worm.
Note the anterior proboscis (on the
left) and the dark trace of the
interior digestive tract. Ottoia was
carnivorous.
source: http://www.gpc.edu/~pgore/geolog
y/geo102/burgess/burgess.htm
source: http://www.nmnh.si.edu/paleo/sha
le/popabin.htm
source: http://www.nmnh.si.edu/paleo/sha
le/popabin.htm
Shale.
[1] diagram
source: http://www.nmnh.si.edu/paleo/sha
le/panomal.htm
[2] jaws
source: http://www.nmnh.si.edu/paleo/sha
le/panomal.htm
the process of moulting (ecdysis), the
soft-bodied arthropod Marrella
splendens.
Canada.
[1] a, Specimen of M. splendens (ROM
56781) emerging and pulling out the
flexible lateral spines from the old
exoskeleton (exuvia). b, Camera lucida
drawing of the same specimen. Scale bar
for a and b, 5 mm. c, Reconstruction of
Marrella (modified from ref.
8). COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v429/n6987/fig_tab/429040a_F1.html
Columbia
[1] Description English: Fossil
specimen of Pikaia from the Burgess
Shale on display at the Smithsonian in
Washington, DC. Image contrast
enhanced. Image is ~4cm across. Date
12 April 2009 (original upload
date) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia; transferred to Commons by
User:FunkMonk using
CommonsHelper. Author Original
uploader was Jstuby at
en.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) Released into the public
domain (by the author). PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2c/Pikaia_Smithsonian.JP
G
[2] Description Pikaia gracilens,
the earliest known vertebrate ancestor,
from the Middle Cambrian of British
Columbia, digital Date 8 December
2007 Source Own work Author
Nobu Tamura
email:nobu.tamura@yahoo.com
www.palaeocritti.com Permission (Reusi
ng this file) See below. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/54/Pikaia_BW.jpg
(centipedes and millipedes).
deposits)(Wheeler Formation) Utah, USA
and (Ust-Majan formation) East
Siberia|(earliest fossils) Shropshire,
England
[1] Description Lithobius
forficatus Deutsch: Steinläufer Date
9 August 2005 Source Own
work Author Darkone CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/79/Steinl%C3%A4ufer_%28L
ithobius_forficatus%29_3.jpg
[2] Description Tachypodoiulus
niger Date 2007-06-28 Source Own
work Author Stemonitis CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Tachypodoiulus_
niger_1.jpg/1280px-Tachypodoiulus_niger_
1.jpg
mybn), and start of the Ordovician
{ORDiVisiN} (488.3-443.7 mybn) Period.
radiation.
During the Ordovician (488-444 million
years ago), the number of genera will
quadruple.
[1] A second peak time in the abundance
of shell-surviving life forms was in
the Upper Ordovician (by this time
also, the first larger vertebrates,
fossil fish, had appeared). Below are
two illustrations: the first, an
artist' conception of marine
invertebrate life in the late
Ordovician; the second, a typical slab
of Ordovician limestone (from Indiana)
containing the fossil types listed in
its caption: PD
source: http://rst.gsfc.nasa.gov/Sect20/
ordovicsea.jpg
[2] A second peak time in the
abundance of shell-surviving life forms
was in the Upper Ordovician (by this
time also, the first larger
vertebrates, fossil fish, had
appeared). Below are two illustrations:
the first, an artist' conception of
marine invertebrate life in the late
Ordovician; the second, a typical slab
of Ordovician limestone (from Indiana)
containing the fossil types listed in
its caption: PD
source: http://rst.gsfc.nasa.gov/Sect20/
Or-03.jpg
Chelicerata (KeliSuroTo) (horseshoe
crabs, mites, spiders, scorpions).
Sweden
[1] Description English: Horseshoe
crab dorsal and ventral Italiano:
Limulus polyphemus dorsale e
ventrale Date 10 April 2009 Source
Own work Author Ricce PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Limulo_dorsale_
e_ventrale.jpg/1280px-Limulo_dorsale_e_v
entrale.jpg
[2] taken from en:Image:Horseshoe crab
female.jpg Dead female horseshoe crab
from NOAA Photo Library: Image ID:
line2632, America's Coastlines
Collection Location: Patuxent River,
Maryland Photo Date: 2002 August
17 Photographer: Mary Hollinger,
NESDIS/NODC biologist, NOAA PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1b/Horseshoe_crab_female
.jpg
Bryophyta, (Liverworts, Hornworts,
Mosses).
The Bryophytes are the simplest land
plants, and reproduce with spores.
[1] English: A closeup shot of moss on
a rock in Beacon Hill Park, Victoria,
Canada. Sony Alpha A100 Date 25
March 2007 Source Own
work Author KirinX at
en.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) CC-BY-SA-2.5. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1c/Moss_closeup.jpg
[2] Phaeoceros laevis (L.) Prosk. gnu
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Anthoceros_levis.jpg
fossil spores belonging to land plants.
These spores look like the spores of
living liverworts and Cooksonia.
Plants conquer land before animals do,
and like animals may move to land not
by sea but by freshwater.
[1] Gray, J., Massa, D., & Boucot, A.
J. Caradocian land plant microfossils
from libya. Geology , April 1982, 10
(4), 197-201. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1130/0091-7613(1982
)10<197:CLPMFL>2.0.CO;2 http://geology.gsapubs.org/
content/10/4/197.abstract?sid=dadb8801-c
fd4-4eb4-b70e-95cb217113e4 {Gray_Jane_1
98204xx.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://geology.gsapubs.org/conte
nt/10/4/197.abstract?sid=dadb8801-cfd4-4
eb4-b70e-95cb217113e4
arthropods Myriapoda (centipedes and
millipedes).
Ontario, Canada
[1] Figure 4. Field photographs of
representative trackways. Scale bars
represent 5 cm. A: Trackway with
central drag and well-defined appendage
marks. Bottom surface. B: Trackway with
central drag and poorly defined
appendage marks. Top surface. Surface
dips to top of photograph; note downdip
offset of central drag. C: Robust
trackway with well-developed appendage
marks and no central drag. Note
push-ups of sand (arrows) associated
with appendage impressions. Figure 4
from: MacNaughton, Robert B., Jennifer
M. Cole, Robert W. Dalrymple, Simon J.
Braddy, Derek E.G. Briggs, and Terrence
D. Lukie. “First Steps on Land:
Arthropod Trackways in
Cambrian-Ordovician Eolian Sandstone,
Southeastern Ontario, Canada.”
Geology 30, no. 5 (May 2002): 391
–394. http://geology.geoscienceworld.
org/citmgr?gca=geology;30/5/391 COPYRIG
HTED
source: http://geology.geoscienceworld.o
rg/citmgr?gca=geology;30/5/391
[2] Figure 2 from: Heather M. Wilson
and Lyall I. Anderson, ''Morphology and
Taxonomy of Paleozoic Millipedes
(Diplopoda: Chilognatha: Archipolypoda)
from Scotland'', Journal of
Paleontology, Vol. 78, No. 1 (Jan.,
2004), pp.
169-184 http://www.jstor.org/stable/409
4847 {Anderson_Lyall_200401xx.pdf} COP
YRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/4094
847?&Search=yes&searchText=MILLIPEDES&se
archText=TAXONOMY&searchText=MORPHOLOGY&
searchText=PALEOZOIC&list=hide&searchUri
=%2Faction%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQuery%3DMOR
PHOLOGY%2BAND%2BTAXONOMY%2BOF%2BPALEOZOI
C%2BMILLIPEDES%26acc%3Don%26wc%3Don&prev
Search=&item=2&ttl=43&returnArticleServi
ce=showFullText
Fossilized fungal
hyphae and spores strongly resemble
modern arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi
(Glomales, Zygomycetes).
[1] Figure 1. (A to C and E to G)
Fossil hyphae and spores from the
Ordovician and (D and H) spores formed
by extant glomalean fungi. (A and B)
Overviews of the fossilized material.
(C, E, F, and G) Fossil spore details.
(C) Detail of (B). (D) A spore of
present-day Glomus sp. S328 with
layered wall structure. In (G), the
arrow shows walls of a subtending hypha
in connection with the spore wall. (H)
A spore of present-day Glomus
leptotichum, a member of the deeply
divergent glomalean lineages. Images
were obtained by light microscopy (28)
of the specimens in air (A, C, F, and
G), differential interference contrast
microscopy of the specimens in
polyvinylalcohol-lactoglycerol (D, E,
and H), and confocal laser scanning
microscopy with the autofluorescence of
the material (B). All scale bars are 50
µm.
source:
Gnathostomata {no toST omoTo}. This
large group includes all jawed fish,
amphibians, reptiles, mammals, and
birds. First vertebrate teeth.
The jaw evolves from parts of the gill
skeleton. The earliest jawed
vertebrates, have no bone; there
skeleton is made of cartilage. The
human skeleton starts as cartilage in
the embyro, and then most becomes
ossified when mineral crystals become
integrated into the skeleton.
[1] Kardong, ''Vertebrates'', Third
Edition, 2002. COPYRIGHTED
source: Kardong, "Vertebrates", Third
Edition, 2002.
[2] Grey reef shark (Carcharhinus
amblyrhynchos) Description Un
gran tiburón surcando aguas
oceánicas. Date 14 March
2004 Source Original image:
Carcharhinus-amblyrynchos.jpg by
Fbattail at fr.wikipedia, March 14,
2004 cropped image:
Greyreefsharksmall.jpg by Chris huh at
en.wikipedia, August 29. 2006
Transfered to Commons by Harryemi,
September 21, 2008 Author
original author is Fbattail , the
image is cropped by Chris huh GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/bb/Tibur%C3%B3n.jpg
{KoN-DriK-tE-EZ} (Cartilaginous fishes:
ancestor of all sharks, rays, skates,
and sawfishes).
The fossil record of Chondrichthyans
dates to around 455 million years ago,
but the earliest Chondrichthyan fossil
dates to 409 million years ago.
[1] Richard Dawkins, ''The Ancestor's
Tale'', (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p360-363. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p360-363.
[2] Miller, Randall F., Richard
Cloutier, and Susan Turner. “The
Oldest Articulated Chondrichthyan from
the Early Devonian Period.” Nature
425.6957 (2003): 501–504. Web. 23 May
2012. http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v425/n6957/full/nature02001.html {M
iller_Chondrichthyans_2003.pdf} COPYRIG
HTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v425/n6957/full/nature02001.html {
Miller_Chondrichthyans_2003.pdf}
shows the gnathostome (vertebrates with
a jaw bone) line separating from
lamprey line here at 450 mybn (first
gnathostome).
mybn), and start of the Silurian
(443.7-416) Period.
of all genera are observed extinct.
Vascular plants are any plant that has
a specialized conducting system
consisting mostly of phloem
(food-conducting tissue) and xylem
(water-conducting tissue), collectively
called vascular tissue.
Earliest spores of vascular plants.
[1] Fig. 2. Chronogram showing
estimates of phylogenetic relationships
and divergence times among the major
groups of extant land plants. The
estimate of relationships is
synthesized from the following papers
in this issue: Burleigh and Mathews
(2004) , Pryer et al. (2004) , Shaw and
Renzaglia (2004) , and Soltis and
Soltis (2004) . Divergence time
estimates are mostly based on analyses
of molecular data with fossil
constraints (Wikström et al., 2001 ;
Pryer et al., 2004 ) and are augmented
by fossil evidence (Kenrick and Crane,
1997 ; Wellman et al., 2003 ).
Estimates of the number of species in
each group are from Judd et al. (2002)
and W. S. Judd (personal
communication). Groups covered by a
particular article in this special
issue are circled and connected to the
names of the article's authors. ''Other
conifers'' refers to the clade
consisting of all conifers except for
Pinaceae (see Burleigh and Mathews,
2004 ). ''Lepto. ferns'' refers to
leptosporangiate ferns fig 2
from: Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, ''The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view'', American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
http://www.amjbot.org/content/91/10/14
37.full {Chase_Mark_2004.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.amjbot.org/content/91
/10/1437/F2.large.jpg
[2] Lycopodiella cernua (L.) Pic.
Serm. plant from windward O'ahu
(Hawai'i) taken in December 2003 by
Eric Guinther and released under the
GNU Free Documentation License. gnu
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lyc
ophyte
evolve. This is the fist bony fish
(Osteichthyes) which includes the
ray-finned, lobefin, and lung fishes.
Bony-fish have a skeleton at least
partly composed of true bone.
[1] Adapted from: Richard Dawkins,
''The Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p339. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p339.
[2] A sturgeon
(pt:esturjāo). esturgeon noir
d'Amérique (Acipenser oxyrinchus
oxyrinchus) http://images.fws.gov/ PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c2/Sturgeon2.jpg
ray-finned fishes, from the swim
bladder. Some surviving teleosts, such
as bowfins, gars, and bichirs still use
their swim bladder for breathing. Fish
that breathe air through their gill
chamber evolved breathing through a
completely different route than those
fish that breathe with a lung.
[1] Earliest fish with lung in
existance?[t] Nile Bichir (Polypterus
bichir bichir) from Günther, A.C.L.G.,
1880. An introduction to the study of
fishes. Today & Tomorrow's Book Agency,
New Delhi. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e8/Nile_bichir.png
[2] Earliest fish with lung in
existance?[t] Nile Bichir (Polypterus
bichir bichir) from Günther, A.C.L.G.,
1880. An introduction to the study of
fishes. Today & Tomorrow's Book Agency,
New Delhi. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e8/Nile_bichir.png
evolve. Coelacanths. Lobefin fish have
a fleshy lobe at the base of each fin.
The Coelacanths are the earliest known
lobefin fish. There are 2 living
species of coelacanths known.
[1] Description Preserved
specimen of chalumnae (Also known as
Coelacanth [1]) in the Natural History
Museum, Vienna, Austria. Believed
to have been extinct for 70 million
years, this specimen was caught the 18
October of 1974, next to
Salimani/Selimani (Grande Comore,
Comoros Islands) 11°48′40.7″S
43°16′3.3″E Length: 170 cm -
Weight: 60 kg Obtained by stiching
3 HiRes images and removing the
background with image
post-processing. Date August
2007 Source Own work Author
Alberto Fernandez Fernandez GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/fa/Latimeria_Chalumnae_-
_Coelacanth_-_NHMW.jpg
with six legs {3 pairs}, includes all
insects).
[1] Description Protura specimen,
taken under stereo microscope (40x).
Acerentomon sp. Date 7 December 2008,
03:13 Source Protura Uploaded
by Richard001 Author Gregor
?nidar CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
_micrograph.jpg){kind=link}
pedia/commons/b/bc/Protura_specimen_(Ace
rentomon_species)_micrograph.jpg
[2] Description English: Campodea
staphylinus, a dipluran. Photo by
Michel Vuijlsteke. Taken on May 9, 2006
at 4.09pm CEST in Gent, Belgium. Date
2007-07-08 (original upload
date) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia Author Original uploader
was Mvuijlst at
en.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2e/Diplura.jpg
[1] Description English: Australian
lungfish (Neoceratodus forsteri) Date
Source Picure taken by Tannin
(from English wikipedia) Author
User:Tannin GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/61/Australian-Lungfish.j
pg
[2] Description English: Lateral
view of lungs of a dissected
Protopterus dolloi Date
2007ish (15 February 2009
(original upload date)) Source
Transferred from
en.wikipedia (Original text : Photo
from lab dissection at U. of
Cincinnati) Author Mokele (talk).
Original uploader was Mokele at
en.wikipedia GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/ae/Lungs_of_Protopterus_
dolloi.JPG
mybn), and start of the Devonian
{DiVONEiN} (416-359.2 mybn) Period.
Cooksonia. This is also the oldest
fossil of a vascular land plant.
Cooksonia is only a few centimeters
tall. It has slender, leafless branches
with Y shaped forks, topped by capsules
that relase microscopic spores. Some
fossils have a dark stripe in their
stems which may be the remains of
vascular tissue, used by plants to move
water.
district of County Tipperary,
Ireland
[1] Cooksonia pertoni with three
sporangia. Height of the plant 2.5
cm Pridolian (Upper
Silurian) Shropshire, England.
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.xs4all.nl/~steurh/eng
cook/ecookwal.html
[2] Cooksonia pertoni, fossilised
plant COPYRIGHTED UK
source: http://owen.nhm.ac.uk/piclib/web
images/0/0/900/936_sml.jpg
The most primitive
living insects are the order
Archaeognatha, the Bristletails.
[1] Description Archaeognatha:
Machilidae, collected from Anglesey,
UK Date 2006-12-28 Source Own work
(own photo) Author
User:Stemonitis Permission (Reusing
this file) CC Attribution
ShareAlike 2.5 CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/42/Archaeognatha.jpg
[2] Description English: Collage
showing the diversity of insect
species. Insect species clockwise from
top to bottom left: 1. Long dance
fly (Empis livida) 2. Long Nosed
Weevil (Rhinotia hemistictus) 3.
Assassin bug in the family Reduviidae
sub-family Harpactocorinae 4. Mole
Cricket (Gryllotalpa brachyptera) 5.
Emperor gum moth (Opodiphthera
eucalypti) 6. European Wasp (Vespula
germanica) Date Source Derivative
from images uploaded by
Fir0002. Author Bugboy52.40 CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Insect_collage.
png/1052px-Insect_collage.png
trigonotarbids, spider-like arthropods
with lung-books, the typical breathing
organs of most of the larger recent
living Arachnids.
Unlike true spiders,
Pleophrynus lacks poison and silk
glands.
[1] {ULSF: Note that this is not a
fossil from Rhnie Chert} Pleophrynus
ensifer ISM 14873 Pleophrynus is a
member of an extinct group of arachnids
called trigonotarbids. These
spider-like animals probably lived on
land. This specimen is the
holotype. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.museum.state.il.us/ex
hibits/mazon_creek/images/pleophrynus1.j
pg AND
http://www.museum.state.il.us/exhibits
/mazon_creek/images/pleophrynus2.jpg
[2] Fig 1 from: M. F. Claridge & A.
G. Lyon (1961). ''Lung-books in the
Devonian Palæocharinidae
(Arachnida)''. Nature 191 (4794):
1190–1191.
doi:10.1038/1911190b0 http://www.nature
.com/nature/journal/v191/n4794/abs/19111
90b0.html COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v191/n4794/abs/1911190b0.html
shows the tetrapod (4 leg) line
separating from the fish line here at
400 mybn (first tetrapod).
thought to be a winged insect.
Peninsula of Québec, Canada)
[1] Rhyniognatha hirsti. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nhm.ac.uk/nature-onli
ne/earth/fossils/article-oldest-insect-f
ossil/the-oldest-fossil-insect-in-the-wo
rld.html
[2] Figure 2 from:l Labandeira, C.
C., B. S. Beall, et al. 1988. Early
insect diversification: Evidence from a
Lower Devonian bristletail from
Québec. Science 242:
913-916. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/
1988Sci...242..913L
AND http://si-pddr.si.edu/dspace/bitstr
eam/10088/6562/1/Science_1988.pdf COPYR
IGHTED
source: http://si-pddr.si.edu/dspace/bit
stream/10088/6562/1/Science_1988.pdf
arthropod insect. Ancestor of all
winged insects (Pterygota {TARiGOTu})
(Mayflies, Dragonflies, Damselflies).
The most primitive living pterygotes
are the Ephemeroptera (Mayflies) and
the Odonata (Dragonflies and
damselflies). Unlike most other flying
insects both the Ephemeroptera and
Odonata have freshwater aquatic larvae,
presumed to be an ancestral habit.
Insect wings evolved only once, and all
winged insects descend from the first
winged insect.
How flight evolved in insects is still
debated. A terrestrial origin of
pterygotes is supported by the fact
that the most basal insects
(apterygotes), the Zygentoma and
Archeognatha are fully terrestrial. One
theory suggests that wings provide
early insects with the ability to
glide, and eventually to control the
aerial descent of the insect from
perches of tall plants. Another theory
has the wing evolving like movable
abdominal gills. The development of
wings may have helped early insects to
escape predators.
Massachusetts and Upper Silesian Basin,
Czech Republic
[1] English: A female subimago of March
Brown (Rhithrogena germanica) of family
Heptageniidae. Mayflies are insects
which belong to the Order Ephemeroptera
(from the Greek ephemeros, short-lived
and pteron, wing, referring to the
short life span of adults). They have
been placed into an ancient group of
insects termed the Paleoptera, which
also contains the dragonflies and
damselflies. They are aquatic insects
whose immature stage (called naiad or,
colloquially, nymph) usually lasts one
year in fresh water. The rests on Rough
Horsetail or Scouringrush Horsetail
(Equisetum hyemale) Date 8 January
2008 Source Own work Author Richard
Bartz, Munich aka Makro Freak
Image:MFB.jpg CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/49/Rhithrogena_germanica
_subimago_on_Equisetum_hyemale.jpg
[2] FIGURE 2—Preliminary hypothesis
of phylogenetic relationships among
major and interesting groups of living
and extinct hexapods and
basal pterygote Insecta. Numbers refer
to synapomorphies (see Table 1); empty
boxes are homoplasious synapomorphies.
Some significant fossils
are-CSCO-3h--F3.large denoted by
circled letters (see Table 2), but many
fossils are not listed for most groups.
Thick lines indicate the approximate
chronology of lineages. The number of
lineages depicted for paraphyletic
lineages
(‘‘Protodonata,’’‘‘Protortho
ptera,’’ Blattaria [Blattoptera])
are arbitrary, and simply indicate
multiple, unresolved lineages. The
names of orders with freshwater aquatic
larvae are shaded (a presumed ancestral
habit). Relationships are based on
Kristensen (1975, 1991, 1999), Willmann
(1997, 1999), Grimaldi (1997, for
Dictyoptera), Engel and Grimaldi (2000,
Zoraptera and related orders), and
others. Figure 2 from: Grimaldi, D.
2001. Insect evolutionary history from
Handlirsch to Hennig, and beyond.
Journal of Paleontology
75:1152-1160. http://jpaleontol.geoscie
nceworld.org/content/75/6/1152
AND www.online-keys.net/sciaroidea/2000
_/Grimaldi_2001_insect_evolution_history
.pdf COPYRIGHTED
source: www.online-keys.net/sciaroidea/2
000_/Grimaldi_2001_insect_evolution_hist
ory.pdf
[1] Fig. 1. Attercopus fimbriunguis,
Devonian of New York (localities: G,
Gilboa; SM, South Mountain), macerated
from matrix with HF and slide-mounted.
(A) First-described “spinneret,” G
334.1b.34; darkness of cuticle reflects
number of layers, so this fragment is
folded over twice. (B) Palpal femur, SM
1.11.12; arrow indicates patch of
distinctive spinules. (C) Piece of
cuticle from corner of opisthosomal
ventral plate showing setae, spigots,
and possible silk strand, SM 1.11.4.
(D) Close-up of E showing possible silk
strand emerging from spigot shaft, SM
1.11.4. (E) Flagellar structure with 12
segments (including possible
distalmost) from original Gilboa
locality; segments show distal collars
and setae, G 334.1a.4. (F) Close-up of
cheliceral fang showing a number of
holes (arrowed), the most distal of
which had been interpreted as a
venom-gland opening, G 329.22.9. (Scale
bars: 0.5 mm, except F, 0.25 mm.)
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.pnas.org/content/105/
52/20781/F1.large.jpg
[2] Permarachne novokshonovi, Permian
of Russia, from the Kungurian
c276mybn UNKNOWN
source: http://media.tumblr.com/tumblr_l
y6ahnZoxc1qgxyxw.jpg
trees fossils.
First progymnosperms (treelike plants).
[1] a, General view of the crown
portion, showing longitudinal ranks of
branch bases on the trunk proximally,
and attached branches with digitate
ramification and speckled surface
pattern distally. Scale bar, 20 cm. b,
Line drawing of the specimen as
recovered including trunk and crown;
the box shows the portion in a, and the
arrow indicates the branch in c. Scale
bar, 10 cm. c, Close-up of a distal
branch showing speckled texture and
lateral appendages. Scale bar, 20
mm. figure 1 from: William E. Stein1,
Frank Mannolini2, Linda VanAller
Hernick2, Ed Landing2 & Christopher M.
Berry3, ''Giant cladoxylopsid trees
resolve the enigma of the Earth's
earliest forest stumps at Gilboa'',
Nature 446, 904-907 (19 April
2007) http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v446/n7138/full/nature05705.html CO
PYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v446/n7138/images/nature05705-f1.2.
jpg
[2] a, Composite image of large trunk
specimen, a cast with upper and lower
counterparts, NYSM 17040. Arrows at the
distal end (top) correspond to the
region in Fig. 3a; arrows at the
proximal end (bottom) correspond to the
region in Fig. 3b. b, Line drawing
showing the architecture of Wattieza
attached to Eospermatopteris. The
length of the trunk is not firmly
established, so the minimum tree height
is shown. Light branches right, also in
Fig. 1a right, appear in life position
but are not definitively attached.
Scale bar, 1 m for both panels. figure
2 from: William E. Stein1, Frank
Mannolini2, Linda VanAller Hernick2, Ed
Landing2 & Christopher M. Berry3,
''Giant cladoxylopsid trees resolve the
enigma of the Earth's earliest forest
stumps at Gilboa'', Nature 446, 904-907
(19 April
2007) http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v446/n7138/full/nature05705.html CO
PYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v446/n7138/images/nature05705-f2.2.
jpg
an important transition between fish
and amphibian.
Canada
[1] A reconstruction of Tiktaalik
alongside a cast of its fossil, and a
map showing where the fossil was found,
on Ellesmere Island, Nunavut,
Canada. UNKNOWN
source: http://evolution.berkeley.edu/ev
olibrary/images/news/tiktaalik_reconstru
ction.jpg
[2] Description English: Life
restoration of Tiktaalik roseae, a
transitional fossil (''missing link'')
between sarcopterygian fishes and
tetrapods from the late Devonian period
of North America. Original description:
''Fossil fish bridges evolutionary gap
between animals of land and
sea.'' Deutsch: Lebendrekonstruktion
von Tiktaalik roseae, einer
Übergangsform („Missing Link“)
zwischen Muskelflosser-Fischen und
Landwirbeltieren aus dem Oberdevon von
Nordamerika. Polski: Artystyczna
próba rekonstrukcji sposobu życia
Tiktaalika roseae, przejściowej formy
kopalnej (tzw. “brakującego ogniwa
ewolucji”) pomiędzy rybami a
czworonożnymi płazami (późny Dewon,
Ameryka
Północna). Date Unknown Source
National Science
Foundation Author Zina Deretsky,
National Science Foundation (Courtesy:
National Science
Foundation) Permission (Reusing
this file) Images credited to the
National Science Foundation, a U. S.
federal agency, are in the public
domain. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Tiktaalik_rosea
e_life_restor.jpg/1280px-Tiktaalik_rosea
e_life_restor.jpg
with four feet), the amphibians evolve
in fresh water. The first vertebrate
limbs (arms and legs) and fingers.
Ancestor of caecillians, frogs, toads,
and salamanders.
Almost no amphibians live in sea
water.
The earliest fossil amphibian is
Elginerpeton, found in Scotland, and
dates back 368 million years.
equator)
[1] Timeline of phylogeny of animals,
figure 6 from: S. Blair Hedges, ''The
origin and evolution of model
organisms'', Nature Reviews Genetics 3,
838-849 (November
2002) http://www.nature.com/nrg/journal
/v3/n11/full/nrg929.html {Hedges_2002.p
df} a) The relationships and
divergence times (millions of years ago
(Mya) plusminus one standard error) of
selected model animals are shown, based
on recent multigene and multiprotein
studies51, 61, 84. The fossil
divergence time of birds and mammals
(310 Mya) was used to calibrate the
molecular clock. Branch lengths are not
proportional to time. b ) The
relationships and numbers of living
species, from a diversity of sources in
most of the main groups. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nrg/journa
l/v3/n11/images/nrg929-f6.jpg
[2] Reconstructions of (a)
Acanthostega and (b) Ichthyostega, from
Benton, 1997. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://palaeo.gly.bris.ac.uk/Pal
aeofiles/Fossilgroups/Amphibia/amphibpic
s/ichthyostega.jpg
fossil.
Tetrapods are four-limbed, vertebrate
animals (all vertebrates except fish).
[1] Figure 3 from: P. E. Ahlberg,
''Tetrapod or near-tetrapod fossils
from the Upper Devonian of Scotland'',
Nature 354, 298 - 301 (28 November
1991) http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v354/n6351/abs/354298a0.html COPYRI
GHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v354/n6351/abs/354298a0.html
[2] [t Note that this drawing is not
from a known scholarly
source.] Description Elginerpeton
pancheni, an early tetrapod from the
Late devonian of Scotland, pencil
drawing Date 22 September
2007 Source Own work Author
Nobu Tamura
email:nobu.tamura@yahoo.com
www.palaeocritti.com GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/bf/Elginerpeton_BW.jpg
caused by ice age. 57% of all genera
are observed extinct.
shows the amniote () line separating
from the amphibian line here at 365
mybn (first amniote).
(amphibians).
equator)
[1] Timeline of phylogeny of animals,
figure 6 from: S. Blair Hedges, ''The
origin and evolution of model
organisms'', Nature Reviews Genetics 3,
838-849 (November
2002) http://www.nature.com/nrg/journal
/v3/n11/full/nrg929.html {Hedges_2002.p
df} a) The relationships and
divergence times (millions of years ago
(Mya) plusminus one standard error) of
selected model animals are shown, based
on recent multigene and multiprotein
studies51, 61, 84. The fossil
divergence time of birds and mammals
(310 Mya) was used to calibrate the
molecular clock. Branch lengths are not
proportional to time. b ) The
relationships and numbers of living
species, from a diversity of sources in
most of the main groups. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nrg/journa
l/v3/n11/images/nrg929-f6.jpg
[2] Reconstructions of (a)
Acanthostega and (b) Ichthyostega, from
Benton, 1997. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://palaeo.gly.bris.ac.uk/Pal
aeofiles/Fossilgroups/Amphibia/amphibpic
s/ichthyostega.jpg
Ferns are are flowerless, seedless
vascular plants having roots, stems,
and fronds (the leaf-like part of a
fern or leaf of a palm) and reproducing
by spores.
[1] Fig. 2. Chronogram showing
estimates of phylogenetic relationships
and divergence times among the major
groups of extant land plants. The
estimate of relationships is
synthesized from the following papers
in this issue: Burleigh and Mathews
(2004) , Pryer et al. (2004) , Shaw and
Renzaglia (2004) , and Soltis and
Soltis (2004) . Divergence time
estimates are mostly based on analyses
of molecular data with fossil
constraints (Wikström et al., 2001 ;
Pryer et al., 2004 ) and are augmented
by fossil evidence (Kenrick and Crane,
1997 ; Wellman et al., 2003 ).
Estimates of the number of species in
each group are from Judd et al. (2002)
and W. S. Judd (personal
communication). Groups covered by a
particular article in this special
issue are circled and connected to the
names of the article's authors. ''Other
conifers'' refers to the clade
consisting of all conifers except for
Pinaceae (see Burleigh and Mathews,
2004 ). ''Lepto. ferns'' refers to
leptosporangiate ferns fig 2
from: Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, ''The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view'', American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
http://www.amjbot.org/content/91/10/14
37.full {Chase_Mark_2004.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.amjbot.org/content/91
/10/1437/F2.large.jpg
[2] The leaflike part of a fern; the
leaf of a palm. ''frond.'' Taylor's
Dictionary for Gardeners. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 1997. Answers.com 25
Jul. 2011.
http://www.answers.com/topic/frond COPY
RIGHTED
source: http://content.answcdn.com/main/
content/img/Gardeners/f0107.jpg
insects.
Ephemeroptera and Odonata, the most
primitive living pterygota, do not live
on the ground. It seems likely that
selective pressures on the first winged
insects heavily favor the development
of some mechanism for folding the wings
against the body after landing, making
them less conspicuous, less awkward,
and less susceptible to breakage.
One of the earliest folded wing fossils
is "Archimylacris eggintoni", a
Carboniferous stem-group dictyopteran
("roachoid"), from the United Kingdom,
around 311 million years old.
Coseley Lagerstätte) Staffordshire,
UK
[1] Stonefly in the genus Dinotoperla.
Taken in Swifts Creek, Victoria in
November 2007 GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e6/Stonefly_-_dinotoperl
a.jpg
[2] Nymph of unidentified
stonefly Description Deutsch:
Steinfliegenlarve Date 16 June
2006 Source Own work Author
böhringer friedrich CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/SteinfliegenLar
ve2.JPG/1280px-SteinfliegenLarve2.JPG
mybn), and start of the Carboniferous
(359.2-299 mybn) Period.
The earliest
fossil seed is from a seed fern
(Pteridosperm {TARiDOSPRM}).
Discoveries of Lower Carboniferous
fossils in Scotland indicate that the
integument (cover) and the cupule wall
(cup-shaped wall) of the pteridosperms
(seed ferns) evolved from an enclosing
ring of vegetative lobes that fused
together.
Pteridosperms are a group of extinct
seed plants characterized by fernlike
leaves that produce naked seeds.
[1] Henry N. Andrews, ''Early Seed
Plants'', Science, New Series, Vol.
142, No. 3594 (Nov. 15, 1963), pp.
925-931. http://www.jstor.org/stable/17
11577 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1711
577
[2] Fig. 2. Chronogram showing
estimates of phylogenetic relationships
and divergence times among the major
groups of extant land plants. The
estimate of relationships is
synthesized from the following papers
in this issue: Burleigh and Mathews
(2004) , Pryer et al. (2004) , Shaw and
Renzaglia (2004) , and Soltis and
Soltis (2004) . Divergence time
estimates are mostly based on analyses
of molecular data with fossil
constraints (Wikström et al., 2001 ;
Pryer et al., 2004 ) and are augmented
by fossil evidence (Kenrick and Crane,
1997 ; Wellman et al., 2003 ).
Estimates of the number of species in
each group are from Judd et al. (2002)
and W. S. Judd (personal
communication). Groups covered by a
particular article in this special
issue are circled and connected to the
names of the article's authors. ''Other
conifers'' refers to the clade
consisting of all conifers except for
Pinaceae (see Burleigh and Mathews,
2004 ). ''Lepto. ferns'' refers to
leptosporangiate ferns fig 2
from: Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, ''The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view'', American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
http://www.amjbot.org/content/91/10/14
37.full {Chase_Mark_2004.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.amjbot.org/content/91
/10/1437/F2.large.jpg
Paddlefish.
[1] Adapted from: Richard Dawkins,
''The Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p339. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p339.
[2] A sturgeon
(pt:esturjāo). esturgeon noir
d'Amérique (Acipenser oxyrinchus
oxyrinchus) Source:
http://images.fws.gov/ via wiki.en PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c2/Sturgeon2.jpg
[1] Adapted from: Richard Dawkins,
''The Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p339. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p339.
[2] Nile Bichir (Polypterus bichir
bichir) from Günther, A.C.L.G., 1880.
An introduction to the study of fishes.
Today & Tomorrow's Book Agency, New
Delhi. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e8/Nile_bichir.png
{DiKTEoPTRu} (Cockroaches, Termites,
and Mantises).
[1] Figure 4.11. German Cockroaches,
Various Stages and Ages PD
source: http://www.cdc.gov/nceh/publicat
ions/books/housing/Graphics/chapter_04/F
igure4.11.jpg
[2] Figure 4.8. American, Oriental,
German, and Brown-banded
Cockroaches PD
source: http://www.cdc.gov/nceh/publicat
ions/books/housing/Graphics/chapter_04/F
igure4.08.jpg
Amniota {aMnEOtu} (ancestor of
reptiles, mammals and birds). The
hard-shell egg is waterproof. This is
the start of vertebrate internal
fertilization, because on land the egg
cannot be fertilized as most fishes and
amphibians do, by a male swimming near
the eggs and spraying them with sperm.
Amniote males and females must copulate
so that the sperm can reach the eggs
inside the female.
Amniotes (reptiles, mammals, and birds)
are distinguished from non-amniote
tetrapods (amphibians) by the presence
of complex embryonic membranes. One of
these, the amnion, gives its name to
the group.
All living amniotes (reptiles, birds,
and mammals) lay hard-shelled eggs,
except in most mammals and some snakes
and lizards, where egg laying has been
replaced by live birth.
The earliest known amniotes,
Westlothiana (~338 MY) and Hylonomus
(~300 MY), are also the earliest known
reptiles.
[1] Figure 2 from: [t Note that this
egg is only of Permian age: 299-251
mybn] Karl F. Hirsch, ''The Oldest
Vertebrate Egg?'', Journal of
Paleontology, Vol. 53, No. 5 (Sep.,
1979), pp.
1068-1084. http://www.jstor.org/stable/
1304086 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1304
086
[2] Prothero, ''Bringing Fossils To
Life'', 2004. COPYRIGHTED
source: Prothero, "Bringing Fossils To
Life", 2004. COPYRIGHTED
[1] T. R. Smithson, ''The earliest
known reptile'', Nature 342, 676 - 678
(07 December
1989). http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v342/n6250/abs/342676a0.html COPYR
IGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v342/n6250/abs/342676a0.html
[2] from: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004), p262.
COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p262.
the Sauropsida {SOR-roP-SiDu} (which
includes reptiles and birds) and the
Synapsida {Si-naP-Si-Du} (which
includes mammals).
The Sauropsids have two major lineages:
the Parareptilia (turtles) and the
Eureptilia (dinosaurs, crocodiles and
birds). The Synapsids also have two
major lineages: pelycosaurs
(sail-backed) and therapsids
(mammal-like).
Cumberland group, Joggins formation.)
Joggins, Nova Scotia, Canada
[1] Prothero, ''Evolution What the
Fossils Say and Why It Matters'', 2007,
p232. COPYRIGHTED
source: Prothero, "Evolution What the
Fossils Say and Why It Matters", 2007,
p232.
[2] Prothero, ''Bringing Fossils To
Life'', 2004. COPYRIGHTED
source: Prothero, "Bringing Fossils To
Life", 2004. COPYRIGHTED
{PeLiKuSOREu} evolve (includes
Edaphosaurus {eDaFoSORuS}, Dimetrodon).
[1] Description This just might be
a depiction of Edaphosaurus pogonias,
to make a guess from the title. If you
know more about this image, please
place a good description here. Date
2007-04-30 (original upload
date) Source Originally from
ru.wikipedia; description page is/was
here. Author Original uploader
was ДиБгд at
ru.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) This image is in the public
domain; PD-ART. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/7d/Edaphosaurus_pogonias
.jpg
[2] Kardong, ''Vertebrates'',
2002. COPYRIGHTED
source: Kardong, "Vertebrates",
2002. COPYRIGHTED
[1] Description Eocaecilia
micropodia, an early caecilian from the
Lower Jurassic of Arizona, pencil
drawing Date 22 August
2007 Source Own work Author
Nobu Tamura
email:nobu.tamura@yahoo.com
www.palaeocritti.com Permission (Reusi
ng this file) See below. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/27/Eocaecilia_BW.jpg
[2] Figure 1 from: Roelants, K.,
Gower, D. J., Wilkinson, M., Loader, S.
P., Biju, S. D., Guillaume, K., Moriau,
L., & Bossuyt, F. (2007). Global
patterns of diversification in the
history of modern amphibians.
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences , 104 (3), 887-892. URL
http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.060837810
4 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0
608378104
Greek for "Naked Seed". Gymnosperms are
the earliest surviving seed plants,
Spermatophyta, and ancestor of all
Cycads, Ginkos and Conifers) evolve.
The most primitive extant Gymnosperms,
the Cycads evolve now.
[1] Fig. 2. Chronogram showing
estimates of phylogenetic relationships
and divergence times among the major
groups of extant land plants. The
estimate of relationships is
synthesized from the following papers
in this issue: Burleigh and Mathews
(2004) , Pryer et al. (2004) , Shaw and
Renzaglia (2004) , and Soltis and
Soltis (2004) . Divergence time
estimates are mostly based on analyses
of molecular data with fossil
constraints (Wikström et al., 2001 ;
Pryer et al., 2004 ) and are augmented
by fossil evidence (Kenrick and Crane,
1997 ; Wellman et al., 2003 ).
Estimates of the number of species in
each group are from Judd et al. (2002)
and W. S. Judd (personal
communication). Groups covered by a
particular article in this special
issue are circled and connected to the
names of the article's authors. ''Other
conifers'' refers to the clade
consisting of all conifers except for
Pinaceae (see Burleigh and Mathews,
2004 ). ''Lepto. ferns'' refers to
leptosporangiate ferns fig 2
from: Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, ''The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view'', American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
http://www.amjbot.org/content/91/10/14
37.full {Chase_Mark_2004.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.amjbot.org/content/91
/10/1437/F2.large.jpg
[2] Leaves and female cone of Cycas
revoluta GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyc
ad
(Crickets, Grasshoppers, Locusts,
Walking sticks).
[1] African Field cricket Gryllus
bimaculatus at Bristol Zoo, Bristol,
England. Photographed by Adrian
Pingstone in February 2005 and released
to the public domain. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/2/27/African.field.c
ricket.arp.jpg/1200px-African.field.cric
ket.arp.jpg
[2] Description
grasshopper Source self
made Date unknown Author
Stephen Friedt PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/thumb/3/3c/Grasshopper_%2827%29
.JPG/1280px-Grasshopper_%2827%29.JPG
(Stoneflies, webspinners).
[1] Description Eusthenia sp.
(possibly E. costalis), Marriott Falls
Track, Mt Field National Park,
Tasmania, Australia Camera
data Camera Canon EOS 400D
Lens Tamron EF 180mm f3.5 1:1 Macro
Flash Umbrella Right Focal length
180 mm Aperture f/11 Exposure
time 1/200 s Sensivity ISO
400 Date 12/04/2009 Source Own
work Author JJ Harrison
(http://www.noodlesnacks.com/) GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/4c/Eusthenia_sp.jpg
[2] Stonefly in the genus Dinotoperla.
Taken in Swifts Creek, Victoria in
November 2007 GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e6/Stonefly_-_dinotoperl
a.jpg
(ancestor of all turtles, crocodiles,
pterosaurs, dinosaurs and birds).
Reptiles are a group of air-breathing
vertebrates that have internal
fertilization, and with the exception
of the birds, have a scaly body, and
are cold-blooded. Most species have
short legs (or none), long tails, and
lay eggs. Living reptiles include the
scaly reptiles (snakes and lizards:
Squamata), the crocodiles (Crocodylia),
the turtles (Testudines), and the
unique tuatara (Sphenodontida). Being
cold-blooded, reptiles are not found in
very cold regions. Extinct reptiles
include the dinosaurs, the pterosaurs,
and the dolphin-like ichthyosaurs.
Canada
[1] from: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004), p262.
COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p262.
[2] Description English: Reptilia
(reptiles), based on:
File:Buberel cayman 3.jpg
File:Crotalus adamanteus (5).jpg
File:Karettschildkroete 01.jpg
File:Henry at Invercargill.jpg All
of them are either under a free licence
already in Wikicommons or in the public
domain Date 3/2/09 Source
Compilation made by myself Author
see respective profiles of
photos PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/67/Reptiles.jpg
lice, true lice, thrips, and the
Hemiptera {HemiPTRu} who have
mouthparts adapted for piercing and
sucking: Cicadas, Aphids, and "true
bugs": such as Bed bugs, and Stink
bugs).
[1] Description Tibicen
linnei English: Annual cicada. Date
22 June 2003 Source Own work
http://www.cirrusimage.com/homoptera_cic
ada_T_linnei.htm Author Bruce
Marlin CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Tibicen_linnei.
jpg/1142px-Tibicen_linnei.jpg
[2] Description English: Pea aphids
extracting sap from the stem and leaves
of garden peas. Date February
2010 Source PLoS Biology, February
2010 direct link to the image
description Author Shipher Wu
(photograph) and Gee-way Lin (aphid
provision), National Taiwan
University CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/20/Acyrthosiphon_pisum_%
28pea_aphid%29-PLoS.jpg
Holometabola: Holometabolous insects
(beetles, bees, true flies, and
butterflies). Complete metamorphosis.
The Neoptera Holometabola (also called
Endopterygota) are insects that have
complete metamorphosis (holometabolous
development). Unlike hemimetabolous
insects in which the immature
structures (legs, eyes, antennae, etc.)
must also serve the adults,
holometabolous insects have a larval
stage and acquire a completely new body
during the pupal stage. Start of
larvae.
[1] Description wespenpoppen in
verschillende ontwikkelstadia Eigen
foto's Date 2005-06-13 (original
upload date) Source Originally from
nl.wikipedia; description page is/was
here. Author Original uploader was
Asaf at
nl.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) SELF2 GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/79/Ontwikkelstadia_wespe
npoppen.jpg
[2] Miomoptera- viewed by many as
stem-group Holometabola. UNKNOWN
source: http://wdict.net/img/miomoptera,
2.jpg
{PaNORPidu}, ancestor of all Mecoptera
(scorpionflies), Siphonaptera (fleas),
Diptera (true flies), Trichoptera
{TriKoPTRu} (caddis flies), and
Lepidoptera (moths and butterflies).
[1] Nannochorista holostigma TILL.,
male, (ca. x 11), in position of rest.
Order Mecoptera, Family
Nannochoristidae. (After TILLYARD,
1917) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.metafysica.nl/nature/
insect/tillyard1917_pl_17_5.jpg
[2] Grimaldi, Engel, ''Evolution of
the Insects'', 2005,
p469. COPYRIGHTED
source: Grimaldi, Engel, "Evolution of
the Insects", 2005, p469.
[1] Figure 1 from: Neil H. Shubin and
Farish A. Jenkins, Jr (7 September
1995). ''An Early Jurassic jumping
frog''. Nature 377 (6544): 49–52.
doi:10.1038/377049a0.http://www.nature.c
om/nature/journal/v377/n6544/full/377049
a0.html COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v377/n6544/full/377049a0.html
[2] Figure 3 from: Neil H. Shubin and
Farish A. Jenkins, Jr (7 September
1995). ''An Early Jurassic jumping
frog''. Nature 377 (6544): 49–52.
doi:10.1038/377049a0.http://www.nature.c
om/nature/journal/v377/n6544/full/377049
a0.html COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v377/n6544/full/377049a0.html
and Toads) evolve.
[1] Richard Dawkins, ''The Ancestor's
Tale'', (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), 303. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), 303.
[2] Description English: A green
frog on a palm frond. Date 18
October 2003 Source Burning
Well Author Leon Brooks PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/8d/Frog_on_palm_frond.jp
g
[1] Richard Dawkins, ''The Ancestor's
Tale'', (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), 303. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), 303.
[2] Description central
Pennsylvania Spotted Salamander
(Ambystoma maculatum) Source
self-made Date 25 March
2008 Author Camazine (talk) Scott
Camazine web.mac.com/camazine CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/b/b2/SpottedSalamander.jpg
shows that the common ancestor of all
mammals, birds, and reptiles dates to
here at 300 mybn.
Turtles, Tortoises and Terrapins.
[1] Richard Dawkins, ''The Ancestor's
Tale'', (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), 262. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), 262.
[2] English: Odontochelys
semitestacea, from the Late Triassic of
China, the oldest known turtle.
Digital. 中文(简体):
半甲齿龟，已知最为古老的乌
，于2007年在中国贵州境内发
。(三维模拟图) Date 4
December 2008 Source Own
work Author Nobu Tamura
email:nobu.tamura@yahoo.com
www.palaeocritti.com GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/39/Odontochelys_BW.jpg
(Chrysophyta {KriSoFiTu}).
[1] Description Dinobryon sp. / from
Shishitsuka Pond, Tsuchiura, Ibaraki
Pref., Japan / Microscope:Leica DMRD
(DIC) Date 20 May 2007 Source Own
work Author ja:User:NEON /
commons:User:NEON_ja CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/68/Dinobryon_sp.jpg
[2] Dinobryon, a colony of
Chrysophytes showing flagella and red
eyespots UNKNOWN
source: http://www.microscopy-uk.org.uk/
mag//imagsmall/Dinobryonb.jpg
(359.2-299 mybn), and start of the
Permian (299-251 mybn) Period.
{KOlEoPTRu} (Beetles).
The earliest fossil beetle.
Illinois, USA
[1] Figure 1. 1–7, Adiphlebia lacoana
Scudder, 1885. 1, 2, holotype specimen
(USNM 38143), reconstruction of the
wing venation (1), and photograph
(negative imprint, light-mirrored,
composite; 2); 3, specimen USNM 38140,
photograph (negative imprint,
light-mirrored, composite); 4,5,
specimen FMNH PE 3416, reconstruction
of the wing venation (forewings
separated; 4) and photograph (negative
imprint, composite; 5); 6, 7, specimen
FMNH PE 60291, reconstruction of the
wing venation (6) and photograph
(positive imprint; 7); 8, 9, details of
forewing main and intercalary veins
(black and white arrows, respectively)
in Adiphlabia lacoana (specimen FMNH PE
3416, right forewing; 8) and
Tetraphalerus bruchi Heller, 1913 (♀,
ventral view; 9). Abbreviations: LFW,
left forewing; RFW, right forewing;
ScP, posterior Subcosta; R, Radius; RA,
anterior Radius; RP, posterior Radius;
M, Media; CuA, anterior Cubitus; CuP,
posterior Cubitus; AA: anterior anal
vein. Color-coding: Subcosta, yellow;
Radius, blue; Media, red; Cubitus,
green; Analis, yellow. from Béthoux,
Olivier. “The Earliest Beetle
Identified.” Journal of Paleontology
83.6 (2009):
931–937. http://www.bioone.org/doi/ab
s/10.1666/08-158.1 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://jpaleontol.geoscienceworl
d.org/content/vol83/issue6/images/large/
i0022-3360-83-6-931-f01.jpeg
[2] {ULSF: Early Permian fossil
beetles see {Kukalová (1969), in
particular pl. 1; Ponomarenko (1969),
in particular figs. 16, 31, 32, 36, 40
41, 43, 44} and representatives of the
beetle sub-order Archostemata,
represented nowadays, exhibit
intercalary veins (Fig. 1.9) similar to
those exhibited by A.
lacoana} Archostemata is the smallest
suborder of beetles, consisting of
fewer than fifty known species
organized into five families.
Archostemata is an ancient lineage with
a number of primitive characteristics.
They are similar in morphology to the
first beetles, which appear in the
fossil record approximately 250 million
years ag Description
Tenomerga mucida (Chevrolat, 1829)
(Coleoptera: Cupedidae) - female.
Loc: Yokohama, kanagawa, japan.
ja: ナガヒラタムシ（鞘翅目:
ナガヒラタムシ科）のメス。
浜市内。産卵管をさかんに
し入れし、朽木の割れ目に挿
し込もうとしていたことから
産卵に来ていたものと思わ
る。 Date 13 July 2005 Source
my own file Author me PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/68/Tenomerga_mucida01.jp
g
[1] * Description: Leaves of Ginkgo
biloba. * Source: picure taken by
Reinhard Kraasch in his own garden in
August 2003 (from German wikipedia)
* Licence: released per the GNU Free
Documentation License by the
photographer
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gin
kgo
[2] Name Ginkgo biloba Family
Ginkgoaceae Image no. 1 Permission
granted to use under GFDL by Kurt
Stueber GNU Ginkgo fruit and leaves
source: same
(ancestor of all bees, ants, and
wasps).
[1] {ULSF: Xyelidae saw flies are the
most primitive of the
hymenoptera} Hymenoptera, Xyelidae,
dorsal - Macroxyela ferruginea -
Female Ames - Tullamore, Story County,
Iowa, USA April 30, 2008 Size: 11
mm It's a big one. (11 mm includes the
ovipositor) Oak hickory maple basswood
woodland malaise, April 23-30,
2008. Photo - still floating in
alcohol. Copyright © 2008 MJ
Hatfield COPYRIGHTED Fig. 2
Placement of fossil evidence for the
earliest Holometabola within a
phylogenetic context. Geologic time
line at left is after Ogg, et al.
(2008); note that the Mississippian is
equivalent to the Early Carboniferous
and Pennsylvanian equivalent to the
Late Carboniferous. Earliest reliable
occurrences of taxa (solid dots,
followed by a thick black line) are
after various sources mentioned in the
text; major localities for the initial
diversification of the Holometabola
are: Elmo, Kansas, the “insect bed”
of the Wellington Formation from the
Artinskian Stage of the Early Permian;
Calhoun, the Calhoun Coal Member of the
Mattoon Formation, from the Kasimovian
Stage of the Late Pennsylvanian; Mazon
Creek of the Francis Creek Shale Member
of the Carbondale Formation, from the
Moscovian Stage of the Middle
Pennsylvanian; and the Terril Shale at
Pas-de-Calais, Bruay-la-Bussière,
France, from the Bashkirian Stage of
the Early Pennsylvanian. The horizontal
stippled bar at bottom represents the
initial diversification and the
earliest fossil occurrences of
holometabolan insects in the fossil
record. Labandeira, Conrad C.
“Evidence for an Earliest Late
Carboniferous Divergence Time and the
Early Larval Ecology and
Diversification of Major Holometabola
Lineages.” Entomologica Americana
117.1 & 2 (2011):
9–21. http://www.bioone.org/doi/abs/1
0.1664/10-RA-011.1 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://bugguide.net/images/raw/S
H8RHHPR0H7RDZHZULYLULRZ2LLZTLSZBLQZKH4RH
H7ZVL4RVL0ZALSZBLXZKH8RVLXZHHPRLHQRLH.jp
g
[2] Macroxyela ferruginea
Trusted Creative Commons Attribution
Non Commercial Share Alike 3.0 (CC
BY-NC-SA 3.0) ©
SusanneSchulmeister Source:
Morphbank Image Repository
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.bioone.org/na101/home
/literatum/publisher/bioone/journals/con
tent/nynt.1/2011/19475144-117.1/10-ra-01
1.1/production/images/large/i1947-5144-1
17-1-9-f02.jpeg
(Cynodonts).
Therapsids evolve from Pelycosaurs and
largely replace them for a time as the
dominant terrestrial vertebrates.
Therapsids appear in the late Permian
and prosper during the early Triassic.
The Therapsids are quadruperal and
their feet have five digits, but their
legs are more directly positioned under
the weight of their body. This reflects
a more efficient and active mode of
locomotion.
One particularly successful group of
therapsids are the cynodonts. By the
Triassic, only one group of cynodonts,
the mammals, will remain and eventually
prosper after the great dinosaur
extinctions at the end of the
Cretaceous.
[1] Kardong, ''Vertebrates'',
2002. COPYRIGHTED
source: Description English:
Moschops capensis - Middle Permian of
South Africa. Based on skeleton from
AMNH. Русский: Moschops
capensis - средняя пермь
Южной Африки.
Основано на скелете
из Американского
музея Естественной
истории. Date 2008 Source
dmitrchel@mail.ru Author
Creator:Dmitry Bogdanov GNU
[2] Kardong, ''Vertebrates'',
2002. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Moschops11DB.jp
g/1024px-Moschops11DB.jpg
Neuropterida (lacewings, snakeflies).
[1] This image was moved from
File:Guldoeje.jpg En: Green
lacewing (Chrysoperla carnea). Da:
Guldøje (Chrysoperla carnea), der har
sat sig til overvintring på et
loft. Date: 18. august
2004. This file was made by Malene
Thyssen. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e0/Chrysoperla_carnea_Gu
ldoeje.jpg
[2] Description Mantispidae, Ditaxis
biseriata (det. Hauser, 2006),
Carnarvon National Park, Queensland,
Australia Date 9 October 2002 Source
Own work Author Fritz
Geller-Grimm Permission (Reusing this
file) CC-By-SA-2.5 CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Mantispidae_fg1
.jpg/1280px-Mantispidae_fg1.jpg
Phaeophyta {FEoFiTu} (Brown Algae).
Many of the Earth's familiar seaweeds
are members of Phaeophyta, like the
giant kelps. Brown algae derive their
color from the presence, in the cell
chloroplasts, of several brownish
carotenoid pigments. With only a few
exceptions, brown algae are marine.
[1] Fig. 1. A consensus phylogeny of
eukaryotes. The vast majority of
characterized eukaryotes, with the
notable exception of major subgroups of
amoebae, can now be assigned to one of
eight major groups. Opisthokonts (basal
flagellum) have a single basal
flagellum on reproductive cells and
flat mitochondrial cristae (most
eukaryotes have tubular ones).
Eukaryotic photosynthesis originated in
Plants; theirs are the only plastids
with just two outer membranes.
Heterokonts (different flagellae) have
a unique flagellum decorated with
hollow tripartite hairs (stramenopiles)
and, usually, a second plain one.
Cercozoans are amoebae with filose
pseudopodia, often living with in tests
(hard outer shells), some very
elaborate (foraminiferans). Amoebozoa
are mostly naked amoebae (lacking
tests), often with lobose pseudopodia
for at least part of their life cycle.
Alveolates have systems of cortical
alveoli directly beneath their plasma
membranes. Discicristates have discoid
mitochondrial cristae and, in some
cases, a deep (excavated) ventral
feeding groove. Amitochondrial
excavates lack substantial molecular
phylogenetic support, but most have an
excavated ventral feeding groove, and
all lack mitochondria. The tree shown
is based on a consensus of molecular
(1-4) and ultrastructural (16, 17) data
and includes a rough indication of new
ciPCR ''taxa'' (broken black lines)
(7-11). An asterisk preceding the taxon
name indicates probable paraphyletic
group COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/co
ntent/full/300/5626/1703
[2] Pacific Rockweed (Fucus distichus)
in Olympic National Park Cropped from
PhotoCD image, from Kodak ISO 800 film,
taken by k.lee June 2004, hereby
released under GFDL.
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Pacific_rockweed%2C_Olympic_National_
Park%2C_USA.jpg
(Conifers: includes Pine, Fir, Spruce,
Redwood, Cedar, Juniper, Hemlock,
Larch, and Cypress).
The gymnosperms, are a division of seed
plants characterized as vascular plants
with roots, stems, and leaves, and with
seeds that are not enclosed in an ovary
but are borne on cone scales or exposed
at the end of a stalk.
[1] Closeup shot of a stem of needles
(perhaps Norway spruce?) by USFWS and
obtained from the GIMP photo
library. United States Federal
Government This work is in the
public domain because it is a work of
the United States Federal Government.
This applies worldwide. See
Copyright Close-up of pinophyte leaves
(needles): Norway Spruce (Picea abies)
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pin
ophyta
[2] Native Pinus sylvestris forest,
Scotland: Deeside, Mar Lodge, April
2005 GNU 1.2
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pin
aceae
Diatoms are microscopic one-celled or
colonial algae, having cell walls of
silica consisting of two interlocking
symmetrical valves.
[1] Fig. 1. A consensus phylogeny of
eukaryotes. The vast majority of
characterized eukaryotes, with the
notable exception of major subgroups of
amoebae, can now be assigned to one of
eight major groups. Opisthokonts (basal
flagellum) have a single basal
flagellum on reproductive cells and
flat mitochondrial cristae (most
eukaryotes have tubular ones).
Eukaryotic photosynthesis originated in
Plants; theirs are the only plastids
with just two outer membranes.
Heterokonts (different flagellae) have
a unique flagellum decorated with
hollow tripartite hairs (stramenopiles)
and, usually, a second plain one.
Cercozoans are amoebae with filose
pseudopodia, often living with in tests
(hard outer shells), some very
elaborate (foraminiferans). Amoebozoa
are mostly naked amoebae (lacking
tests), often with lobose pseudopodia
for at least part of their life cycle.
Alveolates have systems of cortical
alveoli directly beneath their plasma
membranes. Discicristates have discoid
mitochondrial cristae and, in some
cases, a deep (excavated) ventral
feeding groove. Amitochondrial
excavates lack substantial molecular
phylogenetic support, but most have an
excavated ventral feeding groove, and
all lack mitochondria. The tree shown
is based on a consensus of molecular
(1-4) and ultrastructural (16, 17) data
and includes a rough indication of new
ciPCR ''taxa'' (broken black lines)
(7-11). An asterisk preceding the taxon
name indicates probable paraphyletic
group COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/co
ntent/full/300/5626/1703
[2] Figure 1. Phylogenetic hypothesis
of the eukaryotic lineage based on
ultrastructural and molecular data.
Organisms are divided into three main
groups distinguished by mitochondrial
cristal shape (either discoidal,
flattened or tubular). Unbroken lines
indicate phylogenetic relationships
that are firmly supported by available
data; broken lines indicate
uncertainties in phylogenetic
placement, resolution of which will
require additional data. Color coding
of organismal genus names indicates
mitochondrial genomes that have been
completely (Table 1), almost completely
(Jakoba, Naegleria and
Thraustochytrium) or partially (*)
sequenced by the OGMP (red), the FMGP
(black) or other groups (green). Names
in blue indicate those species whose
mtDNAs are currently being sequenced by
the OGMP or are future candidates for
complete sequencing. Amitochondriate
retortamonads are positioned at the
base of the tree, with broken arrows
denoting the endosymbiotic origin(s) of
mitochondria from a Rickettsia-like
eubacterium. Macrophar.,
Macropharyngomonas. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nar.oxfordjournals.org/cg
i/content/full/26/4/865
growing animal.
Both birds and mammals are endothermic
(also called "warm blooded") as opposed
to other vertebrates which are
ectothermic (or "cold blooded) and
cannot internally generate heat.
Endothermy
is the physiological maintenance, by a
body, of a constant temperature
independent of the external
environmental temperature. Hair for
insulation is correlated to endothermy.
Endothermy allows birds and mammals to
maintain a high and relatively constant
body temperature, even at rest, during
a wide range of external environmental
conditions.
[1] Description English: Life
restoration of Purlovia maxima. Based
on figures 8-10 of ''Permian and
Triassic therocephals (Eutherapsida) of
Eastern Europe'' by M. F. Ivakhnenko
(Paleontological Journal 45 (9):
981-1144). Date 8 January
2012 Source Own
work Author Smokeybjb CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a5/Purlovia_maxima.jpg
[2] Description Bauria , a
therocephalian therapsid from the early
Middle Triassic of South Africa, pencil
drawing Date 20 February
2007 Source Own work Author
Nobu Tamura
email:nobu.tamura@yahoo.com
www.palaeocritti.com GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c0/Bauria_BW.jpg
[1] Adapted from: Richard Dawkins,
''The Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p339. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p339.
[2] Spotted gar (Lepisosteus
oculatus) Creator Montague,
Brian Source
WO2445-28 Publisher U.S. Fish and
Wildlife Service Contributor
DIVISION OF PUBLIC AFFAIRS Rights
(public domain) Source: fws.gov PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d8/Lepisosteus_oculatus.
jpg
true flies, single pair of wings:
mosquito, gnat, fruit fly, house fly).
[1] Nymphomyia alba adult UNKNOWN
source: http://whyevolutionistrue.files.
wordpress.com/2011/03/nymphomyia-alba.jp
g
[2] Nymphomyia alba larva UNKNOWN
source: http://whyevolutionistrue.files.
wordpress.com/2011/03/nymphomyia.jpg
evolve.
[1] Richard Dawkins, ''The Ancestor's
Tale'', (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p262. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p262.
[2] A male tuatara named Henry, living
at the Southland Museum and Art
Gallery, is still reproductively active
at 111 years of age. 111-Year-Old
Reptile Becomes a Dad After Tumor
Surgery Discover Magazine, 26 January
2009. Retrieved 20 March
2009. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disc
over_Magazine Description English:
Henry, the world's oldest Tuatara in
captivity at Invercargill, New
Zealand Date 22 November
2007 Source Own work Author
KeresH CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/96/Henry_at_Invercargill
.jpg
of all genera are observed extinct.
The are 5 known major mass extinctions.
[1] Description English:
Description: Illustration of an
en:impact event. Source Made by
Fredrik. Cloud texture from public
domain NASA image. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/cb/Impact_event.jpg
[2] Timeline of mass extinctions.
COPYRIGHTED Benjamin
Cummings. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://io.uwinnipeg.ca/~simmons/
16cm05/1116/16macro.htm
the Mesozoic Era, and the end of the
Permian (299-251 mybn) and start of the
Triassic (251-201.6 mybn) period.
[1] Geologic Time Scale 2009 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.geosociety.org/scienc
e/timescale/timescl.pdf
forms.
[1] In geologic terms, a plate is a
large, rigid slab of solid rock. The
word tectonics comes from the Greek
root ''to build.'' Putting these two
words together, we get the term plate
tectonics, which refers to how the
Earth's surface is built of plates. The
theory of plate tectonics states that
the Earth's outermost layer is
fragmented into a dozen or more large
and small plates that are moving
relative to one another as they ride
atop hotter, more mobile material.
Before the advent of plate tectonics,
however, some people already believed
that the present-day continents were
the fragmented pieces of preexisting
larger landmasses
(''supercontinents''). The diagrams
below show the break-up of the
supercontinent Pangaea (meaning ''all
lands'' in Greek), which figured
prominently in the theory of
continental drift -- the forerunner to
the theory of plate tectonics. PD
source: http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/dynamic
/graphics/Fig2-5globes.gif
[2] Description Pangea map, with
names of the continents. Image of
pangaea made by en:User:Kieff. Date
20 October 2009 GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Pangaea_contine
nts.svg/1000px-Pangaea_continents.svg.pn
g
[1] Figure 2 from: [t Note that this
egg is only of Permian age: 299-251
mybn] Karl F. Hirsch, ''The Oldest
Vertebrate Egg?'', Journal of
Paleontology, Vol. 53, No. 5 (Sep.,
1979), pp.
1068-1084. http://www.jstor.org/stable/
1304086 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1304
086
[2] Prothero, ''Bringing Fossils To
Life'', 2004. COPYRIGHTED
source: Prothero, "Bringing Fossils To
Life", 2004. COPYRIGHTED
[1] Adapted from: Richard Dawkins,
''The Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p339. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p339.
[2] Description English: Bowfin
(Amia calva) Deutsch: Kahlhecht Date
Source USFWS alt graphic A.svg
This image originates from the
National Digital Library of the United
States Fish and Wildlife Service at
this page This tag does not indicate
the copyright status of the attached
work. A normal copyright tag is still
required. See Commons:Licensing for
more information. See Category:Images
from the United States Fish and
Wildlife Service. Author Duane
Raver/U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5c/Amia_calva1.jpg
(Crocodiles, allegators, and caimans
{KAmeNS}) evolve.
[1] Richard Dawkins, ''The Ancestor's
Tale'', (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p262. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p262.
[2] Nile crocodile, taken at the Le
Bonheur Crocodile Farm near
Stellenbosch, South Africa. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/81/NileCrocodile.jpg
Moon, Ischigualasto Provinvial Park,
northwestern Argestina
[1] Figure 2 from: Sereno, Paul C. et
al. “Primitive dinosaur skeleton from
Argentina and the early evolution of
Dinosauria.” Nature 361.6407 (1993) :
64-66. http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v361/n6407/abs/361064a0.html COPYR
IGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v361/n6407/abs/361064a0.html
[2] Eoraptor was a genus of small,
slender theropod native to northwest
Argentina. It was quite possibly the
earliest theropod genus and has not
been classified in any family.
UNKNOWN
source: http://images.wikia.com/deadtime
s/images/a/a2/Eoraptor.jpg
lines: Ornithischians {ORnitiSKEiNZ}
(Bird-hipped dinosaurs) and
Saurischians {SoriSKEiNZ}
(Lizard-hipped dinosaurs). The
Ornithischians will evolve into both
bipedal and quadrupedal plant-eaters,
and the Saurischians will evolve into
bipedal meat-eaters and quadrupedal
plant-eaters.
[1] Harold Levine, ''The Earth Through
Time'', 2006, p417. COPYRIGHTED
source: Harold Levine, "The Earth
Through Time", 2006, p417.
[2] Harold Levine, ''The Earth Through
Time'', 2006, p418. COPYRIGHTED
source: Harold Levine, "The Earth
Through Time", 2006, p418.
split into two major lines: The
Sauropodomorpha (SoroPiDimORFu} and the
Therapoda {tiRoPiDu}.
Sauropodomorphs are divided into
prosauropods and sauropods, are mostly
plant-eating, and include the large,
long-necked dinosaurs like
Apatosaurus.
Theropod {tERePoD} dinosaurs are
bipedal and carnivorous and include
Allosaurus, Tyrannosaurus, and
Velociraptor. All birds descend from a
Therapod ancestor.
Moon, Ischigualasto Provinvial Park,
northwestern Argestina
[1] Figure 2 from: Sereno, Paul C. et
al. “Primitive dinosaur skeleton from
Argentina and the early evolution of
Dinosauria.” Nature 361.6407 (1993) :
64-66. http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v361/n6407/abs/361064a0.html COPYR
IGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v361/n6407/abs/361064a0.html
[2] Eoraptor was a genus of small,
slender theropod native to northwest
Argentina. It was quite possibly the
earliest theropod genus and has not
been classified in any family.
UNKNOWN
source: http://images.wikia.com/deadtime
s/images/a/a2/Eoraptor.jpg
Theropod Eoraptor.
This dinosaur is a cat-sized
meat eater.
Moon, Ischigualasto Provinvial Park,
northwestern Argestina
[1] Figure 2 from: Sereno, Paul C. et
al. “Primitive dinosaur skeleton from
Argentina and the early evolution of
Dinosauria.” Nature 361.6407 (1993) :
64-66. http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v361/n6407/abs/361064a0.html COPYR
IGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v361/n6407/abs/361064a0.html
[2] Eoraptor was a genus of small,
slender theropod native to northwest
Argentina. It was quite possibly the
earliest theropod genus and has not
been classified in any family.
UNKNOWN
source: http://images.wikia.com/deadtime
s/images/a/a2/Eoraptor.jpg
mammary gland, and breast.
The earliest evidence for mammals is
the fossil Adelobasileus, a 15mm skull
found in Texas.
Adelobasileus belongs to a monophyletic
group that includes Morganucodon,
multituberculates, monotremes, and
therians.
(Describe oldest hair fossil.)
(Describe issue
of endothermic anatomy evolving in
common ancestor of birds and mammals,
or independently evolved twice?)
County, Texas, USA
[1] Figure 6 from: Spencer G. Lucas
and Zhexi Luo, ''Adelobasileus from the
Upper Triassic of West Texas: The
Oldest Mammal'', Journal of Vertebrate
Paleontology, Vol. 13, No. 3 (Sep. 23,
1993), pp. 309-334 Published by:
Taylor & Francis, Ltd. on behalf of The
Society of Vertebrate
Paleontology Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/4523514 COP
YRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/4523
514
[2] [t Note that this image is not
clearly from a scholarly
source] Description English:
Adelobasileus cromptoni, a mammaliaform
from the Late Triassic of Texas.
Digital. Date 9 September
2008 Source Own work Author
Nobu Tamura
email:nobu.tamura@yahoo.com
www.palaeocritti.com Permission (Reusi
ng this file) See below. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2f/Adelobasileus_BW.jpg
(Adelobasileus).
County, Texas, USA
[1] Figure 6 from: Spencer G. Lucas
and Zhexi Luo, ''Adelobasileus from the
Upper Triassic of West Texas: The
Oldest Mammal'', Journal of Vertebrate
Paleontology, Vol. 13, No. 3 (Sep. 23,
1993), pp. 309-334 Published by:
Taylor & Francis, Ltd. on behalf of The
Society of Vertebrate
Paleontology Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/4523514 COP
YRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/4523
514
[2] [t Note that this image is not
clearly from a scholarly
source] Description English:
Adelobasileus cromptoni, a mammaliaform
from the Late Triassic of Texas.
Digital. Date 9 September
2008 Source Own work Author
Nobu Tamura
email:nobu.tamura@yahoo.com
www.palaeocritti.com Permission (Reusi
ng this file) See below. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2f/Adelobasileus_BW.jpg
(Pterosaur).
Oldest Pterosaur fossils.
Pterosaurs have hair, and some argue
have endothermy (are warm-blooded) and
actively fly (contracting their wing
muscles to flap, as opposed to only
glide).
[1] Eudimorphon and Peteinosaurus
from: Wellnhofer, ''Pterosaurs'',
1991, p60-61. COPYRIGHTED
source: Wellnhofer, "Pterosaurs", 1991,
p60-61.
[2] Eudimorphon and Peteinosaurus
from: Wellnhofer, ''Pterosaurs'',
1991, p60-61. COPYRIGHTED
source: Wellnhofer, "Pterosaurs", 1991,
p60-61.
lizards and snakes).
[1] Description English: Desert
Iguana (Dipsosaurus dorsalis) near
Amboy Crater, Mojave Desert,
California. Date 19 March
2011 Source Own work Author
Wilson44691 http://www3.wooster.edu/ge
ology/MWilson.html Photograph taken by
Mark A. Wilson (Department of Geology,
The College of Wooster) CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/5/58/DesertIguana031
611.jpg/1280px-DesertIguana031611.jpg
[2] Richard Dawkins, ''The Ancestor's
Tale'', (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), 262. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), 262.
teleost (TeLEoST) fishes evolves.
Teleosts (Subdivision Teleostei) are a
large group of fishes with bony
skeletons, including most common
fishes, different from cartilaginous
fishes such as sharks and rays.
[1] Fig. 2. The single
most-parsimonious (MP) tree derived
from unweighted analysis of mitogenomic
data comprising concatenated nucleotide
sequences from 12 protein-coding
(excluding the ND6 gene and third codon
positions) and 22 transfer RNA (tRNA)
genes (stem regions only) from all 28
species examined. Tree length, 12,709
steps; consistency index, 0.355;
retention index, 0.471; and rescaled
consistency index, 0.167. Numbers above
and below internal branches indicate
jackknife values obtained for 500
replicates using the heuristic search
option in PAUP*4.0b10 (Swofford, 2002)
with 20 random-addition sequences being
performed in each replication and decay
indices, respectively. The scale
indicates 100 changes. from: Inoue,
JG, Miya, M, Tsukamoto, K, Nishida, M
(2003) ''Basal actinopterygian
relationships: A mitogenomic
perspective on the phylogeny of the
ldquoancient fish.rdquo'' Mol
Phylogenet Evol 26:
110-120 http://www.sciencedirect.com/sc
ience/article/pii/S1055790302003317 COP
YRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/cac
he/MiamiImageURL/B6WNH-475B9D7-6-1K/0?wc
hp=dGLbVlz-zSkzk
[2] Arapaima gigas at the Smithsonian
Zoo. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b1/Arapaima_gigas.jpg
(iguanas, chameleons, and spiny
lizards).
[1] Richard Dawkins, ''The Ancestor's
Tale'', (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), 262. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), 262.
[2] Description Iguana sp. Foto
tomada en el Zoo de Madrid. Date
Summer 2007 Source Own
work Author Manuel de Corselas
ARS SUMMUM, Centro para el Estudio y
Difusión Libres de la Historia del
Arte PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/57/AA_Iguana_Fot_Ars_Sum
mum.JPG
(snakes, skinks, and geckos).
[1] Richard Dawkins, ''The Ancestor's
Tale'', (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), 262. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), 262.
[2] Description Deutsch:
Versteinerung eines Archaeophis proavus
Massalongo - aus Monte Bolca. Museum
für Naturkunde (Berlin). English:
Fossil of a Archaeophis proavus
Massalongo, Monte Bolca. Museum für
Naturkunde (Berlin). Date 22 July
2007 Source Own work Author
Raymond - Raimond
Spekking Permission (Reusing this
file) See
below. Attribution (required by the
license) © Raimond Spekking /
CC-BY-SA-3.0 CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f1/Naturkundemuseum_Berl
in_-_Archaeophis_proavus_Massalongo_-_Mo
nte_Bolca.jpg
Proganochelys.
[1] Jaekel, Otto. “Die
Wirbeltierfunde aus dem Keuper von
Halberstadt.” Paläontologische
Zeitschrift 2.1 (1915) :
88-113-113. http://www.springerlink.com
/content/l58n565j5tu3k2r5/abstract/ PD
source: http://www.springerlink.com/cont
ent/l58n565j5tu3k2r5/abstract/
[2] Description Proganochelys
quenstedti, American Museum of Natural
History Date 2 April 2008,
18:07 Source Proganochelys
Quenstedti Author Claire Houck
from New York City, USA CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/dc/Proganochelys_Quenste
dti.jpg
[1] Fig. 2. The single
most-parsimonious (MP) tree derived
from unweighted analysis of mitogenomic
data comprising concatenated nucleotide
sequences from 12 protein-coding
(excluding the ND6 gene and third codon
positions) and 22 transfer RNA (tRNA)
genes (stem regions only) from all 28
species examined. Tree length, 12,709
steps; consistency index, 0.355;
retention index, 0.471; and rescaled
consistency index, 0.167. Numbers above
and below internal branches indicate
jackknife values obtained for 500
replicates using the heuristic search
option in PAUP*4.0b10 (Swofford, 2002)
with 20 random-addition sequences being
performed in each replication and decay
indices, respectively. The scale
indicates 100 changes. from: Inoue,
JG, Miya, M, Tsukamoto, K, Nishida, M
(2003) ''Basal actinopterygian
relationships: A mitogenomic
perspective on the phylogeny of the
ldquoancient fish.rdquo'' Mol
Phylogenet Evol 26:
110-120 http://www.sciencedirect.com/sc
ience/article/pii/S1055790302003317 COP
YRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/cac
he/MiamiImageURL/B6WNH-475B9D7-6-1K/0?wc
hp=dGLbVlz-zSkzk
[2] Arapaima gigas at the Smithsonian
Zoo. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b1/Arapaima_gigas.jpg
evolve.
[1] [t May not be from scholarly
source] Description
Gobiconodon Date Source
Own Work by Pavel Riha (see also
the paleo-gallery by Pavel
Riha) Author Pavel Riha = user
Pavel.Riha.CB
(e-mail) Permission (Reusing this
file) See below. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2d/Gobiconodon.jpg
mybn), and start of the Jurassic
(201.6-145.5 mybn) Period.
[1] Description English: Global
paleogeographic reconstruction of the
Earth in the late Jurassic period 150
million years ago. Deutsch: Globale
paläogeografische Rekonstruktion der
Erde während des späten Jura vor 150
Millionen Jahren. Русский:
Глобальная
палеогеографическая
реконструкция Земли
в конце Юрского
периода, 150 миллионов
лет назад. Date 23 April
2008 Source
http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~rcb7/mollgl
obe.html Author Dr. Ron Blakey -
http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~rcb7/ CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/76/LateJurassicGlobal.jp
g
of all genera are observed extinct.
Both thecodonts and synapsids go
extinct.
Large outpourings of lava from break-up
of Pangea may have caused climate
change.
[1] Adapted from: Richard Dawkins,
''The Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p339. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p339.
[2] American eel (Anguilla
rostrata). CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/57/Anguillarostratakils.
jpg
fossil.
[1] Figure 2 from: R. A. Fensome, R.
A. MacRae, J. M. Moldowan, F. J. R.
Taylor and G. L. Williams, ''The Early
Mesozoic Radiation of
Dinoflagellates'', Paleobiology , Vol.
22, No. 3 (Summer, 1996), pp.
329-338 Published by: Paleontological
Society Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/2401092 COP
YRIGHTED
source: R. A. Fensome, R. A. MacRae, J.
M. Moldowan, F. J. R. Taylor and G. L.
Williams, "The Early Mesozoic Radiation
of Dinoflagellates", Paleobiology ,
Vol. 22, No. 3 (Summer, 1996), pp.
329-338 Published by: Paleontological
Society Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/2401092
[2] Plate 1 from: Riding, et al, ''A
review of the chronostratigraphical
ages of Middle Triassic to Late
Jurassic dinoflagellate cyst biozones
of the North West Shelf of Australia'',
Review of Palaeobotany and
Palynology Volume 162, Issue 4,
November 2010, Pages 543-575
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/a
rticle/pii/S0034666710001570 COPYRIGHTE
D
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence/article/pii/S0034666710001570
{tIrEoFeru} evolve; ancestor of the
armored ankylosaurs {ANKilOSORZ} and
the plated stegosaurs {STeGeSORZ}.
One of the most primitive Thyreophorans
is Scutellosaurus which has rows of
armored plates along its body and tail.
[1] Description Scutellosaurus
lawleri, an ornithischian from the
Early Jurassic of North America, pencil
drawing, digital coloring Date
November 30, 2006, modified October
11, 2007 Source Own work Author
Nobu Tamura
(http://spinops.blogspot.com) GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/12/Scutellosaurus.jpg
[2] Description Scutellosaurus Date
Source Own Work by Pavel Riha (see
also the paleo-gallery by Pavel
Riha) Author Pavel Riha = user
Pavel.Riha.CB GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b0/Scutellosaurus1.jpg
ancestor of the large, long-necked
dinosaurs like Apatosaurus
{uPaTuSORuS}, Brachiosaurus
{BrAKEuSORuS}, and Diplodocus
{DiPloDiKuS}.
[1] [t may not be
scholarly] Description
Brachiosaurus altithorax Date
2007 Source Own work Author
Богданов
dmitrchel@mail.ru PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d9/Brachiosaurus_DB.jpg
[2] Description English: Bronze
Brachiosaurus mount outside of the
Field Museum of Natural History,
Chicago, IL. Date
10/12/2009 Source Own
work Author
AStrangerintheAlps CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/4b/FMNH_Brachiosaurus.JP
G
{ORnitoPiDu} evolve; the duck-billed
dinosaurs, ancestor of the Hadrosaurs.
One of the most primitive Ornithopods
is Heterodontosaurus.
[1] Heterodontosaurus UNKNOWN
source: http://www.wikidino.com/wp-conte
nt/uploads/Heterodontosaurus-Jan-Sovak.j
pg
[2] Harold Levine, ''The Earth Through
Time'', 2006, p417. COPYRIGHTED
source: Harold Levine, "The Earth
Through Time", 2006, p417.
{SKWAlEo} evolve, ancestor of all rays,
skates, and sawfishes.
[1] Richard Dawkins, ''The Ancestor's
Tale'', (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p361. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p361.
[2] Description Manta Ray (Manta
birostris) at Hin Daeng,
Thailand. Date 30 November
2005 Source Flickr Author
jon hanson from london, UK CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/df/Manta_birostris-Thail
and4.jpg
{GAlEu} evolve, (ancestor of all
sharks: includes great white,
hammerhead, mako, tiger and nurse
sharks).
[1] Richard Dawkins, ''The Ancestor's
Tale'', (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p361. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p361.
[2] Grey reef shark (Carcharhinus
amblyrhynchos) Description Un
gran tiburón surcando aguas
oceánicas. Date 14 March
2004 Source Original image:
Carcharhinus-amblyrynchos.jpg by
Fbattail at fr.wikipedia, March 14,
2004 cropped image:
Greyreefsharksmall.jpg by Chris huh at
en.wikipedia, August 29. 2006
Transfered to Commons by Harryemi,
September 21, 2008 Author
original author is Fbattail , the
image is cropped by Chris huh GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/bb/Tibur%C3%B3n.jpg
[1] Adapted from: Richard Dawkins,
''The Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p339. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p339.
[2] Description Northern
anchovies are important prey for marine
mammals and game fish Image ID:
nur00009, National Undersearch Research
Program (NURP) Collection Location:
Pacific Ocean. Credit: OAR/National
Undersea Research Program
(NURP) Downloaded from:
http://www.photolib.noaa.gov/htmls/nur00
009.htm Note: Another image from this
collection had fish described as
northern anchovies, with the scientific
name Engraulis mordax, or Californian
anchovy. The species may be
misidentified. Date 2006-12-08
(original upload date) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0f/Anchovy_closeup.jpg
Laurasia and Gondwana. The northern
part, Laurasia will form North America
and Europe. The southern part, Gondwana
will form South America and Africa.
[1] In geologic terms, a plate is a
large, rigid slab of solid rock. The
word tectonics comes from the Greek
root ''to build.'' Putting these two
words together, we get the term plate
tectonics, which refers to how the
Earth's surface is built of plates. The
theory of plate tectonics states that
the Earth's outermost layer is
fragmented into a dozen or more large
and small plates that are moving
relative to one another as they ride
atop hotter, more mobile material.
Before the advent of plate tectonics,
however, some people already believed
that the present-day continents were
the fragmented pieces of preexisting
larger landmasses
(''supercontinents''). The diagrams
below show the break-up of the
supercontinent Pangaea (meaning ''all
lands'' in Greek), which figured
prominently in the theory of
continental drift -- the forerunner to
the theory of plate tectonics. PD
source: http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/dynamic
/graphics/Fig2-5globes.gif
[2] Harold Levin, ''The Earth Through
Time'', Eighth Edition, 2006,
p176. COPYRIGHTED
source: Harold Levin, "The Earth
Through Time", Eighth Edition, 2006,
p176.
{lePiDoPTRu} evolve (moths,
butterflies, caterpillars).
The earliest fossil of Lepidoptera is
from the early Jurassic in England and
is 190 MYO.
[1] Description Photograph of a male
Monarch butterfly (Danaus plexippus en
). This butterfly was stationary on a
leaf with his wings outstretched in an
attempt to show off and attract a mate.
The picture was taken in the butterfly
house at the Tyler Arboretum. Camera
and Exposure Details: Camera: Nikon
D50 Lens: Nikon Nikkor ED AF-S DX
18-55mm f/3.5-5.6G Exposure: 55mm
(82.5mm in 35mm equivalent) f/9 @ 1/125
s. Date 9 September 2006 Source Own
work (Own Picture) Author Photo
(c)2006 Derek Ramsey
(Ram-Man) Permission (Reusing this
file) You may NOT use this image
on your own web site or anywhere else
unless you release this image and any
derivative works (which may include the
web page or other medium where this
image is used, if it is not considered
a ''collective work'') by following the
terms of the following license. Any
other use will be considered a breach
of copyright law. Please do not copy
this image illegally by ignoring the
terms of the license, as it is not in
the public domain. If you would like
special permission to use, license, or
purchase the image or prints of the
image, or for use in any other fashion
or would simply like a copy of the
original file, please contact me or
email me first to ask. Please see the
non-legalese usage guide for more
information. Note: While you are not
required to do so by the license,
please consider letting me know when
you reuse one of my photograph images,
as a courtesy. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Monarch_Butterf
ly_Showy_Male_3000px.jpg/1280px-Monarch_
Butterfly_Showy_Male_3000px.jpg
[2] Description Photograph of a
female Monarch Butterflyen (Danaus
plexippus en ) laying an egg on a
Mexican Milkweeden (Asclepias
curassavica en 'Silky Gold'). The
picture was taken in Aston Township,
Pennsylvania. Camera and Exposure
Details: Camera: Nikon D50 Lens:
Sigma 70mm f/2.8 EX DG Macro Exposure:
70mm (105mm in 35mm equivalent) f/8 @
1/160 s. (200 ISO) Date Friday,
August 8, 2008 Source Own
Picture. Author Photo by and (c)2009
Derek Ramsey
(Ram-Man) Permission (Reusing this
file) You may NOT use this image
on your own web site or anywhere else
unless you release this image and any
derivative works (which may include the
web page or other medium where this
image is used, if it is not considered
a ''collective work'') by following the
terms of the following license. Any
other use will be considered a breach
of copyright law. Please do not copy
this image illegally by ignoring the
terms of the license, as it is not in
the public domain. If you would like
special permission to use, license, or
purchase the image or prints of the
image, or for use in any other fashion
or would simply like a copy of the
original file, please contact me or
email me first to ask. Please see the
non-legalese usage guide for more
information. Note: While you are not
required to do so by the license,
please consider letting me know when
you reuse one of my photograph images,
as a courtesy. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Monarch_Butterf
ly_Danaus_plexippus_Laying_Eggs.jpg/1096
px-Monarch_Butterfly_Danaus_plexippus_La
ying_Eggs.jpg
source: http://www.nature.com/news/2003/
030217/images/diatom_180.jpg
source: http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/chr
omista/diatoms/diatomdiverse.jpg
Monotremes {moNeTrEMZ} evolve.
Monotremes are an order of primitive
egg-laying mammals restricted to
Australia, Tasmania and New Guinea and
consisting of only the platypus and the
echidna.
Monotremes are the earliest surviving
warm blooded and hair growing species.
(verify- perhaps the earliest bird is)
Guinea
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
239. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), 239.
[2] Description Photo: model of
Steropodon galmani at the Australian
Museum, Sydney. Date 20 April
2008 Source Own work Author
Matt Martyniuk
(Dinoguy2) Permission (Reusing this
file) See below. Other versions
Derivative works of this file:
Prototheria collage.png GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f8/Steropodon_model_aus.
jpg
[1] Adapted from: Richard Dawkins,
''The Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p339. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p339.
[2] Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Commo
n_carp.jpg Common carp (Cyprinus
carpio). Public domain image from USFWS
National Image Library. Created by
Duane Raver. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a8/Common_carp.jpg
[1] Adapted from: Richard Dawkins,
''The Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p339. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p339.
[2] Fig. 2. The single
most-parsimonious (MP) tree derived
from unweighted analysis of mitogenomic
data comprising concatenated nucleotide
sequences from 12 protein-coding
(excluding the ND6 gene and third codon
positions) and 22 transfer RNA (tRNA)
genes (stem regions only) from all 28
species examined. Tree length, 12,709
steps; consistency index, 0.355;
retention index, 0.471; and rescaled
consistency index, 0.167. Numbers above
and below internal branches indicate
jackknife values obtained for 500
replicates using the heuristic search
option in PAUP*4.0b10 (Swofford, 2002)
with 20 random-addition sequences being
performed in each replication and decay
indices, respectively. The scale
indicates 100 changes. from: Inoue,
JG, Miya, M, Tsukamoto, K, Nishida, M
(2003) ''Basal actinopterygian
relationships: A mitogenomic
perspective on the phylogeny of the
ldquoancient fish.rdquo'' Mol
Phylogenet Evol 26:
110-120 http://www.sciencedirect.com/sc
ience/article/pii/S1055790302003317 COP
YRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/cac
he/MiamiImageURL/B6WNH-475B9D7-6-1K/0?wc
hp=dGLbVlz-zSkzk
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p231. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p231.
[2] Description English: Virginia
Opossum (Didelphis virginiana) in a
juniper tree in northeastern
Ohio. Date 27 December
2008 Source Own work Author
Wilson44691 Permission (Reusing
this file) See below. Other versions
PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6a/Possum122708.JPG
Ningcheng County, Inner Mongolia
[1] Huang, Diying et al. “Diverse
Transitional Giant Fleas from the
Mesozoic Era of China.” Nature
advance online publication (2012): n.
pag. http://www.nature.com/nature/journ
al/vaop/ncurrent/full/nature10839.html
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/vaop/ncurrent/full/nature10839.html
[2] Description English: Scanning
Electron Micrograph of a Flea. See
bellow for a colorized version of this
image. Fleas are known to carry a
number of diseases that are
transferable to human beings through
their bites. Included in this
infections is the plague, caused by the
bacterium Yersinia pestis. Français :
Une puce observée en microscopie
électronique. Les puces transmettent
de nombreuses maladies qu'elles peuvent
transmettre à l'homme par leur
morsures. Parmi ces maladies on trouve
la peste, causée par la bactérie
Yersinia pestis. Date Source
http://phil.cdc.gov/PHIL_Images/0507200
2/00001/PHIL_240_lores.jpg Author
Content Provider(s): Centers for
Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) /
Janice Carr PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/66/Scanning_Electron_Mic
rograph_of_a_Flea.jpg
shows the eutheria (placental mammals)
line separating from the marsupial line
here at 130 mybn (first placental
mammals).
The oldest known eutherian species is
Juramaia sinensis, dated at 160 million
years ago from the Jurassic in China.
Province, China
[1] Figure 1 from: Luo Z, Yuan C, Meng
Q & Ji Q (2011), ''A Jurassic eutherian
mammal and divergence of marsupials and
placentals'', Nature 476(7361): p.
42–45. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v476/n7361/full/nature10291.html
{nature10291.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nature.com/nature/journal
/v476/n7361/carousel/nature10291-f1.2.jp
g
[2] Adapted from Figure 3 from: Luo
Z, Yuan C, Meng Q & Ji Q (2011), ''A
Jurassic eutherian mammal and
divergence of marsupials and
placentals'', Nature 476(7361): p.
42–45. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v476/n7361/full/nature10291.html
{nature10291.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v476/n7361/carousel/nature10291-f3.
2.jpg
plant-eating Thyreophoran {tIRrEoFereN}
dinosaur lives around this time.
[1] [t may not be
scholarly] Description
Stegosaurus stenops, a stegosaur
from the Late Jurassic of North
America, pencil drawing Date 6
May 2007 Source Own work Author
Nobu Tamura
email:nobu.tamura@yahoo.com
www.palaeocritti.com Permission (Reusi
ng this file) See below. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/70/Stegosaurus_BW.jpg
[2] Description Deutsch:
Rekonstruktion eines
Stegosaurus-Skeletts im Naturmuseum
Senckenberg in Frankfurt am
Main English: Reconstruction of a
Stegosaurus skeleton in the Senckenberg
Museum in Frankfurt am Main Date
2 September 2007 Source
EvaK Author EvaK GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6a/Stegosaurus_Senckenbe
rg.jpg
Dragonfish.
[1] Adapted from: Richard Dawkins,
''The Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p339. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p339.
[2] Description English: This
deep-sea fish, Photostomias guernei,
has a built-in bioluminescent
''flashlight'' it uses to help it see
in the dark. Date 1999 Source
Photostomias.jpg Author
derivative work: Una Smith
Photostomias.jpg: Edith
Widder/HBOI PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/63/Photostomias2.jpg
The oldest fossil bird is named
Archaeoptyrx, is 150 million years old,
and is from the Solnhofen Limestone of
Germany.
Fossils of therapod dinosaurs from
China (~120 MYBN) indicate that
feathers may have originally evolved on
non-flying reptiles for insulation (or
courting) and not flight. (Note that
the fossil is not older than
Archeoptyrx ~150MYBN but the species
is.)
Microraptor gui, a 120 million year old
four-winged feathered dinosaur that
could probably glide, may represent an
intermediate stage towards the active,
flapping-flight stage. This suggests
that these feathered dinosaurs are
arboreal (tree) animals, and that the
ancestor of birds first learns to glide
by taking advantage of gravity before
flapping flight is acquired in birds.
The earliest bird with a beak is
Confuciusornis, which also dates to
around 120 million years old.
Birds have highly developed color
vision. Both birds and reptiles have
nucleated red blood cells but the
mammal red blood cell has no nucleus.
(There are
many unsolved questions about birds.
Did birds evolve flight from trees or
from the ground? From what part of the
body did feathers evolve? What colors
were the first birds? Was
Archaeopteryx warm blooded?)
(All living birds are endothermic
(warm-blooded), so determine if the
first warm-blooded animal is bird
instead of a mammal.)
(Describe anatomy, various systems
{sense organs, diet}. Describe what the
thought and eye images might look like,
and what the thought-sounds might sound
like on these species.)
[1] Richard Dawkins, ''The Ancestor's
Tale'', (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p262. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p262.
[2] Description English:
Archaeopteryx lithographica, specimen
displayed at the Museum für Naturkunde
in Berlin. (This image shows the
original fossil - not a
cast.) Deutsch: Archaeopteryx
lithographica, Exemplar im Museum für
Naturkunde in Berlin. (Dieses Bild
zeigt das Original-Fossil, keinen
Abguss.) Date 5 July 2009 Source
Own work Author H. Raab
(User:Vesta) CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/9d/Archaeopteryx_lithogr
aphica_%28Berlin_specimen%29.jpg
Archaeopteryx.
[1] Archaeopteryx siemensii HMN
1880/81 (Berlin) COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://www.oucom.ohiou.edu/dbms-
witmer/dinoskulls02.htm
[2] Archaeopteryx sp. JM 2257
(Eichstätt) COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://www.oucom.ohiou.edu/dbms-
witmer/dinoskulls02.htm
large, long-necked dinosaurs like
Apatosaurus {uPaTuSORuS}, Brachiosaurus
{BrAKEuSORuS}, and Diplodocus
{DiPloDiKuS}.
[1] [t may not be
scholarly] Description
Brachiosaurus altithorax Date
2007 Source Own work Author
Богданов
dmitrchel@mail.ru PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d9/Brachiosaurus_DB.jpg
[2] Description English: Bronze
Brachiosaurus mount outside of the
Field Museum of Natural History,
Chicago, IL. Date
10/12/2009 Source Own
work Author
AStrangerintheAlps CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/4b/FMNH_Brachiosaurus.JP
G
branch of mammals) evolve.
[1] [t Note: image not clearly from
scholarly source] Description
Skull of Ptilodus, a paleocene
multituberculate, after Vaughan, 1986,
pencil drawing Date 13 November
2007 Source Own work Author
Nobu Tamura
email:nobu.tamura@yahoo.com
www.palaeocritti.com GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/19/Ptilodus_skull_BW.jpg
[2] Description Life restoration
of Ptilodus gracilis from W.B. Scott's
A History of Land Mammals in the
Western Hemisphere. New York: The
Macmillan Company. Date
1913 Source
http://www.archive.org/details/ahis
torylandmam00scotgoog Author
Robert Bruce Horsfall
(1869–1948); in a book by W. B. Scott
(1858–1947) Permission (Reusing
this file) See below. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d0/Ptilodus.jpg
(angiosperm).
Almost all grains, beans, nuts, fruits,
vegetables, herbs and spices come from
plants with flowers. Much of our
clothing comes from flowering plants
too: cotton, linen, rope and burlap are
made from "fibers" of flowering plants,
as are rope and burlap, and many
commercial dyes and drugs come from
flowering plants.
Angiosperms represent approximately 80
percent of all the known green plants
now living. The angiosperms are
vascular seed plants in which the ovule
(egg) is fertilized and develops into a
seed in an enclosed hollow ovary. The
ovary is usually enclosed in a flower,
the part of the angiosperm that
contains the male or female
reproductive organs or both. The fruit
is the ovary of a plant which encloses
seeds.
China
[1] Description
辽宁古果（Archaefructus
liaoningensis），为迄今发现的最
早的花（早白垩纪），于北京
然博物馆 Date 17:15, 18 October
2006 (UTC) Source Own work Author
Shizhao CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Archaefructus_l
iaoningensis.jpg/1280px-Archaefructus_li
aoningensis.jpg
[2] Figure 2 from: Sun, G. , Dilcher,
D. L. , Zheng, S.-L. & Zhou, Z.-K. In
search of the first flower: A Jurassic
angiosperm, Archaefructus, from
northeast China. Science 282,
1692–1695
(1998). http://www.sciencemag.org/conte
nt/282/5394/1692
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/2896858
COPYRIGHTED
source: Sun, G. , Dilcher, D. L. ,
Zheng, S.-L. & Zhou, Z.-K. In search of
the first flower: A Jurassic
angiosperm, Archaefructus, from
northeast China. Science 282,
1692–1695
(1998). http://www.sciencemag.org/conte
nt/282/5394/1692
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/2896858
Archaefructus, in China, a submerged
wetland plant.
northeastern China
[1] Archaefructus liaoningensis. The
leaf-like structures on the stem of
this 140 million year old fossil are
pods containing the seeds, a
characteristic unique to flowering
plants. Credit: University of Florida.
PD?
source: http://science.nasa.gov/headline
s/y2001/ast17apr_1.htm?list118443
[2] Archaefructus liaoningensis Sun,
Dilcher, Zheng et Zhou (Sun et al.,
1998). Fruiting axes and remains of two
subtending leaves (Photo courtesy of
David Dilcher). COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://www.flmnh.ufl.edu/deeptim
e/virtualfossilcollection/Archaeofructus
.html
mybn), and start of the Cretaceous
(145.5-65.5 mybn) Period.
"Amborella".
[1] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
''Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree'', Proc
Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/268/1482/2211.abstract COPYRIG
HTED
source: http://rspb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/268/1482/2211.abstract
[2] Photo of Amborella trichopoda
(Amborellaceae; photo © Sangtae Kim).
source: http://tolweb.org/tree?group=ang
iosperms
Angiosperms, ("Nymphaeales")
{niM-FE-o-lAZ}, the Water Lilies.
[1] Nymphaea alba Nymphaea alba -
image taken on 29 August 2004 in the
outdoor botanical garden of Technion -
Haifa, Israel public domain
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nym
phaeaceae
[2] Nymphaea colorata from
Africa presume is gnu or pd
source: same
evolve (early birds).
[1] Protopteryx fengningensis Name:
Protopteryx fengningensis Phylum:
Chordata; Subphylum Vertebrata; Class
Aves; Subclass
Enantiornithes Geological Time:
Early Cretaceous Size: 120 mm long
(tip of skull to tip of toes); Matrix:
85 mm by 141 mm Fossil Site: Yixian
Formation, Fengning County, Hebei
Province of China UNKNOWN
source: http://www.fossilmuseum.net/Foss
il-Pictures/Birds/Protopteryx/CF017A.jpg
[2] Sinornis santensis Artist: James
Reece COPYRIGHTED AUSTRALIA
source: http://www.amonline.net.au/chine
se_dinosaurs/feathered_dinosaurs/photo07
.htm
"Magnoliids" {maGnOlEiDZ} (nutmeg,
avocado, sassafras, cinnamon, black and
white pepper, camphor, bay (or laurel)
leaves, magnolias.).
[1] Magnolia This photo is a part of
the Wikipedia:Plant photo collection
I. Downloaded URL:
http://tencent.homestead.com/files/magno
lia.jpg Warning sign This image has
no source information. Source
information must be provided so that
the copyright status can be verified by
others. Unless the copyright status is
provided and a source is given, the
image will be deleted seven days after
this template was added (see page
history). If you just added this
template, please use {{no source
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mag
noliales
[2] ~~~~~}} (to include the date
here). Please consider using {{no
source notified
source: same
(the largest lineage of flowers).
The two main groups of the Eudicots are
the "rosids" and the "asterids".
Eudicots are also called "tricolpates"
which refers to the structure of the
pollen.
[1] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
''Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree'', Proc
Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/268/1482/2211.abstract COPYRIG
HTED
source: http://rspb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/268/1482/2211.abstract
[2] Fig. 2. Chronogram showing
estimates of phylogenetic relationships
and divergence times among the major
groups of extant land plants. The
estimate of relationships is
synthesized from the following papers
in this issue: Burleigh and Mathews
(2004) , Pryer et al. (2004) , Shaw and
Renzaglia (2004) , and Soltis and
Soltis (2004) . Divergence time
estimates are mostly based on analyses
of molecular data with fossil
constraints (Wikström et al., 2001 ;
Pryer et al., 2004 ) and are augmented
by fossil evidence (Kenrick and Crane,
1997 ; Wellman et al., 2003 ).
Estimates of the number of species in
each group are from Judd et al. (2002)
and W. S. Judd (personal
communication). Groups covered by a
particular article in this special
issue are circled and connected to the
names of the article's authors. ''Other
conifers'' refers to the clade
consisting of all conifers except for
Pinaceae (see Burleigh and Mathews,
2004 ). ''Lepto. ferns'' refers to
leptosporangiate ferns fig 2
from: Jeffrey D. Palmer, Douglas E.
Soltis and Mark W. Chase, ''The plant
tree of life: an overview and some
points of view'', American Journal of
Botany. 2004;91:1437-1445., (2004).
http://www.amjbot.org/content/91/10/14
37.full {Chase_Mark_2004.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.amjbot.org/content/91
/10/1437/F2.large.jpg
evolve.
[1] Hesperornis. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.savageancientseas.com
/images/labels/hesperornis.jpg
[2] Detail of a painting by Ely Kish,
Copyright © Ely Kish; used with
permission of Ely Kish (EMAIL)
Hesperornis regalis Hesperornis
(pronounced HES-per-OR-nis) means
''western bird''. Toothed marine birds
of the Late Cretaceous
seas COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.oceansofkansas.com/He
sperornis/kish-01.jpg
fish, pufferfish, barracuda.
[1] Adapted from: Richard Dawkins,
''The Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p339. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p339.
[2] Seahorse - Hippocampus
sp. Image ID reef2027, The
Coral Kingdom Collection Location
Gulf of Aqaba, Red Sea Photographer
Mr. Mohammed Al Momany, Aqaba,
Jordan Source
http://www.photolib.noaa.gov/htmls/reef2
027.htm PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/4b/Hippocampus.jpg
[1] Adapted from: Richard Dawkins,
''The Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p339. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p339.
[2] Fig. 2. The single
most-parsimonious (MP) tree derived
from unweighted analysis of mitogenomic
data comprising concatenated nucleotide
sequences from 12 protein-coding
(excluding the ND6 gene and third codon
positions) and 22 transfer RNA (tRNA)
genes (stem regions only) from all 28
species examined. Tree length, 12,709
steps; consistency index, 0.355;
retention index, 0.471; and rescaled
consistency index, 0.167. Numbers above
and below internal branches indicate
jackknife values obtained for 500
replicates using the heuristic search
option in PAUP*4.0b10 (Swofford, 2002)
with 20 random-addition sequences being
performed in each replication and decay
indices, respectively. The scale
indicates 100 changes. from: Inoue,
JG, Miya, M, Tsukamoto, K, Nishida, M
(2003) ''Basal actinopterygian
relationships: A mitogenomic
perspective on the phylogeny of the
ldquoancient fish.rdquo'' Mol
Phylogenet Evol 26:
110-120 http://www.sciencedirect.com/sc
ience/article/pii/S1055790302003317 COP
YRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/cf/Gadus_morhua-Cod-2-At
lanterhavsparken-Norway.JPG
fossils.
[1] The fossilized Microraptor specimen
from the Beijing Museum of Natural
History. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://graphics8.nytimes.com/ima
ges/2012/03/09/science/09dinosaur_span/0
9dinosaur_span-articleLarge.jpg
[2] Credit: Jason Brougham/University
of Texas; Mick Ellison
(inset) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://news.sciencemag.org/scien
cenow/assets/2012/03/08/sn-microraptor.j
pg
beak, Confuciusornis.
Unlike Archaeopteryx, Confuciusornis
had no teeth, and has the earliest
beak.
northeastern China
[1] Confuciusornis
source: http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/dia
psids/birds/confuciusornislg.jpg
[2] Description Confuciusornis
sanctus skeleton displayed in Hong Kong
Science Museum Date 30 June
2007 CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/78/Confuchisornis_sanctu
s.JPG
(modern birds: the most recent common
ancestor of all living birds).
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p262. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p262.
[2] Description English: Photo of
stuffed brown kiwi (Apteryx australis)
from Auckland Museum, New
Zealand. Dansk: Foto af udstoppet brun
kiwi (Apteryx australis) fra Auckland
Museum i New Zealand. Date 1999.
(2007-07-03, according to EXIF
data) Source See below Author
This file was made by Malene
Thyssen. Please credit this: Malene
Thyssen,
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:M
alene An email to malene at
mtfoto.dk would be appreciated
too. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5c/Kiwifugl.jpg
"Monocots") evolve: Flowering plants
that have a single cotyledon (or seed
leaf) in the embryo.
Monocots are the second largest lineage
of flowers after the Eudicots, and
include lilies, palms, orchids, and
grasses.
The two main orders of Monocots are
"Base Monocots" and "Commelinids".
[1] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
''Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree'', Proc
Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/268/1482/2211.abstract COPYRIG
HTED
source: http://rspb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/268/1482/2211.abstract
[2] Sweet Flag (Acorus calamus) -
spadix Spadix of Sweet Flag. usgs
public domain
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aco
rus
South Wales, Australia
[1] Description Photo: model of
Steropodon galmani at the Australian
Museum, Sydney. Date 20 April
2008 Source Own work Author
Matt Martyniuk (Dinoguy2) GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f8/Steropodon_model_aus.
jpg
[2] Description Steropodon galmani,
a platypus-like monotreme from the
Early Cretaceous of
Australia. Illustrator: Anne
Musser Rights: © Anne
Musser COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0e/Steropodon_BW.jpg
brachiosaur (sauropod) lives.
[1] [t Note: not clearly from scholarly
source] Description Sauroposeidon
was a sauropod from the Early
Cretaceous Period, related to the more
famous Brachiosaurus. The only specimen
to date is represented by four neck
vertebrae. It was the tallest dinosaur
known, estimated at 18 m (60 ft). Date
13 December 2006 Source i
made it myself Author
LadyofHats PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Sauroposeidon_d
inosaur.svg/1000px-Sauroposeidon_dinosau
r.svg.png
(buttercup, clematis, poppy {source of
opium and morphine}, macadamia, lotus,
sycamore).
[1] Creeping butercup (Ranunculus
repens). GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Creeping_butercup_close_800.jpg
[2] Clematis hybrid from
http://www.ars.usda.gov/is/graphics/phot
os/ public domain
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cle
matis
(carnation, cactus, caper, buckwheat,
rhubarb, sundew, venus flytrap, old
world pitcher plants, beet, quinoa,
spinach, currant, sweet gum, peony,
witch-hazel, mistletoe, grape plants.).
[1] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
''Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree'', Proc
Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/268/1482/2211.abstract COPYRIG
HTED
source: http://rspb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/268/1482/2211.abstract
[2] Carnation in flower Beschreibung:
Gartennelke (Dianthus caryophyllus)
creative commons
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Car
nation
{oRJeNTiNuSORuS}, possibly the longest
animal of all time.
[1] Description
Argentinosaurus Deutsch:
Skelettrekonstruktion in einer
Sonderausstellung des Naturmuseums
Senckenberg English: Skeletal
reconstruktion in a special exhibition
of the Naturmuseum Senckenberg Date
6 August 2010 Source Eva
K. Author Eva K. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a9/Argentinosaurus_DSC_2
943.jpg
[2] [t May not be
scholarly] Description
Argentinosaurus huinculensis, a
titanosaur from the Middle Cretaceous
of Argentina, pencil drawing, digital
coloring Date 15 August
2007 Source Own work Author
Nobu Tamura
email:nobu.tamura@yahoo.com
www.palaeocritti.com GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e1/Argentinosaurus_BW.jp
g
Afrotheres evolves (elephants,
manatees, aardvarks).
Afrotheres originate in Africa and are
the earliest extant placental mammals.
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p225. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p225.
[2] Description Afrotheria Date
18 December 2007 Source
self-made, based on:
Image:Orycteropus afer.jpg
Image:Dugong.jpg Image:Elephant
Shrew.jpg Image:Manatee Looking at
the Camera.jpg Image:Taupe
doree.jpg Image:Klippschliefer
Suedafrika Hermanus.jpg
Image:Elefante Lake Manyara Park.jpg
Image:Tanrek.jpg Author
Esculapio GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f0/Afrotheria.jpg
shows the mammal line separating from
the primate line here at 100 mybn
(first primates).
meat-eating (theropod) dinosaur from
South America.
[1] Description Česky: Model kostry
karnotaura v Chlupáčově muzeu v
Praze English: Carnotaurus in
Chlupáč museum in Prague Date
25 June 2009 Source Own
work Author Czech Wikipedia user
Packa CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2a/Carnotaurus%2C_Chlup%
C3%A1%C4%8D_Museum%2C_Prague.jpg
(Tinamous).
The tinamous, an order of South and
Central American birds which are
superficially fowl-like but have fully
developed wings and are weak fliers.
[1] Richard Dawkins, ''The Ancestor's
Tale'', (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p262. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p262.
[2] Phylum : Chordata - Class : Aves -
Order : Tinamiformes - Family :
Tinamidae - Species : Crypturellus
tataupa (Tataupa tinamou) Given to the
wikipedia by the owner, Marcos
Massarioli. Status GNU
source: http://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
gem:Crypturellus_tataupa.JPG
emu, cassowary {KaSOwaRE}, kiwis).
[1] Richard Dawkins, ''The Ancestor's
Tale'', (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p262. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p262.
[2] Description Various Ratite
birds (clockwise from top left): Brown
kiwi Apteryx mantelli, Greater rhea,
double-wattled cassowary Casuarius
casuarius, Haast's eagle attacking New
Zealand moa, Masai ostrich
(photographed in Nairobi National Park,
Kenya). Date 19 June 2007 Source
self-made from
Image:Brown_kiwi.jpg,
Image:Nandu-Portrait 2.jpg,
Image:Casuarius_casuarius_-_double-wattl
ed_cassowary.jpg,
Image:Giant_Haasts_eagle_attacking_New_Z
ealand_moa.jpg, Image:Masai ostrich.jpg
(see original images for copyright
information). Author
Richard001 GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/31/Ratites.PNG
{SPINuSORuS}, perhaps the largest
meat-eating dinosaur.
[1] Description Spinosaurus -
01 Date 6 November 2009,
11:18 Source Spinosaurus - 01
Uploaded by FunkMonk Author
Kabacchi CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/64/Spinosaurus_skeleton.
jpg
[2] [t May or may not be from
scholarly source] Description
Spinosaurus aegipticus with hands,
tail and skull fixed. Date 2003
(modified 6-May-2008) Source
dmitrchel@mail.ru Author
Bogdanov, modified by Matt
Martyniuk (User:Dinoguy2) and
User:FunkMonk. Jaw muscles taken
from[1] by User:Steveoc_86.
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2b/Spinosaurus1DBa.png
evolve (Sloths, Anteaters, Armadillos).
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p220. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p220.
[2] Description
0,DrawImage(''Chase_Angiosperms_fig2_20
011107.jpg'',CENTER,CENTER,1,1,0) 2158,
EraseImage(''Chase_Angiosperms_fig2_2001
1107.jpg'',CENTER,CENTER,1) 2158,DrawIm
age(''Asparagus_Tip.jpg'',CENTER,CENTER,
1,1,0) 2945,EraseImage(''Asparagus_Tip.
jpg'',CENTER,CENTER,1) 2945,DrawImage('
'Onion_set.JPG'',CENTER,CENTER,1,1,0) 3
398,EraseImage(''Onion_set.JPG'',CENTER,
CENTER,1) 3398,DrawImage(''garlic.jpg''
,CENTER,CENTER,1,1,0) 3895,EraseImage('
'garlic.jpg'',CENTER,CENTER,1) 3895,Dra
wImage(''agave.jpg'',CENTER,CENTER,1,1,0
) 4467,EraseImage(''agave.jpg'',CENTER,
CENTER,1) 4964,DrawImage(''Aloevera2web
.jpg'',CENTER,CENTER,1,1,0) 4964,EraseI
mage(''Aloevera2web.jpg'',CENTER,CENTER,
1) 4467,DrawImage(''Orchid.jpg'',CENTER
,CENTER,1,1,0) 5449,EraseImage(''Orchid
.jpg'',CENTER,CENTER,1) 5449,DrawImage(
''Tigerlilysmall.jpg'',CENTER,CENTER,1,1
,0) END,EraseImage(''Tigerlilysmall.jpg
'',CENTER,CENTER,1) Hoffmann's
Two-toed Sloth (Choloepus hoffmanni) in
Milwaukee County Zoological
Gardens Date 8 January
2006 Source Flickr Author
Woodsm CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b5/Choloepus_hoffmanni.j
pg
Rosids include: geranium, pomegranate,
myrtle, clove, guava, allspice, and
eucalyptus).
[1] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
''Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree'', Proc
Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/268/1482/2211.abstract COPYRIG
HTED
source: http://rspb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/268/1482/2211.abstract
[2] A photo of the tree Staphylea
colchica taken by me in Århus, Denmark
GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cro
ssosomatales
Fabales include many beans (green,
lima, kidney, pinto, navy, black, mung,
fava, cow (or black-eyed), popping),
pea, peanut, soy {used in tofu, miso,
tempeh, and milk}, lentil, chick pea
(or garbonzo) {used in falafel}, lupin,
clover, alfalfa {used as sprouts},
cassia {Kasu}, jicama, Judas tree,
tamarind {TaMuriND}, acacia {uKAsYu},
mesquite.
[1] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
''Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree'', Proc
Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/268/1482/2211.abstract COPYRIG
HTED
source: http://rspb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/268/1482/2211.abstract
[2] Abrus precatorius (Black-eyed
Susan) USGS public domain
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abr
us
(vanilla, orchid, asparagus, onion,
garlic, agave, aloe, lily).
[1] Sweet Flag (Acorus calamus) -
spadix Spadix of Sweet Flag. usgs
public domain
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aco
rus
[2] Ivy Duckweed (Lemna
trisulca) Name Lemna
trisulca Family Lemnaceae
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ali
smatales
{KomelIniDZ} evolve (palms, coconut,
corn, rice, barley, oat, wheat, rye,
sugarcane, bamboo, grass, pineapple,
papyrus, turmeric {TRmRiK}, banana,
ginger).
[1] Manila dwarf coconut palm from
http://www.ars.usda.gov/is/graphics/phot
os/ Manila dwarf coconut palm
thumbnail A Manila dwarf coconut palm
on the grounds of the Tropical
Agriculture Research Station in
Mayaguez, Puerto Rico. dept of
ag public domain
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Are
cales
[2] coconut GOV public domain
source: http://www.nps.gov/kaho/KAHOckLs
/KAHOplnt/images/IMG_03957.jpg
"Cornales" (dogwoods, tupelos, dove
tree).
[1] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
''Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree'', Proc
Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/268/1482/2211.abstract COPYRIG
HTED
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Aethionema_grandiflora0.jpg
[2] European Cornel (Cornus mas)
Paris, France, cc
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Cornus_mas_flowers.jpg
{AReKAlEZ} (kiwi, ebony, persimmon,
blueberry, cranberry, brazil nut, new
world pitcher plants, tea).
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Aethionema_grandiflora0.jpg
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Actinidia_fruit.jpg
evolve.
Apiales includes dill, angelica,
chervil {CRViL}, celery, caraway,
cumin, sea holly, poison hemlock,
coriander (or cilantro), carrot, lovage
{LuViJ}, parsnip, anise {aNiS}, fennel,
cicely {SiSelE}, parsley, ivy, ginseng.
[1] Variegated Ground-elder (Aegopodium
podagraria L.) in flower. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ground-elder_bloom.jpg
[2] An established spread of
variegated Ground-elder (Aegopodium
podagraria L.). GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ground-elder.jpg
evolve.
Asterales includes burdock, tarragon,
daisy, marigold, safflower,
chrysanthemum (mums), chickory, endive,
artichoke, sunflower, sunroot
(Jerusalem artichoke), lettuce,
chamomile, black-eyed susan, salsify
{SoLSiFE}, dandelion, and zinnia.
[1] Ray floret, typical for flowers of
the family Asteraceae. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ray.floret01.jpg
[2] disc floret, typical part of a
flower of the family Asteraceae. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Disc_floret01.jpg
{maLPiGEAlEZ} evolve (includes gamboge
{GaM BOJ}, mangosteen {mANGuSTEN}, coca
{used in cocaine and drinks}, rubber
tree, cassava (or manioc {maNEoK})
{used like a potato, and in tapioca},
castor oil, poinsettia, flax, acerola
{aSorOlu} (barbados cherry), willow,
poplar, aspen, and violet (or pansy).
[1] mangosteen public domain
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gar
cinia
[2] Mangosteen fruit public domain
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Man
gosteen
evolve.
Brassicales includes horseradish,
rapeseed, mustard, rutabaga, kale,
Chinese broccoli (kai-lan {KI laN}),
cauliflower, collard greens, cabbage
(used in coleslaw and sauerkraut),
Brussels sprouts, kohlrabi {KOLroBE},
broccoli, watercress, radish, wasabi,
mignonette {miNYuNeT}, and papaya.
[1] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
''Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree'', Proc
Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/268/1482/2211.abstract COPYRIG
HTED
source: http://rspb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/268/1482/2211.abstract
[2] Aethionema grandiflora, GFDL by
Kurt Stueber
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Aethionema_grandiflora0.jpg
(includes hemp, hop, breadfruit,
jackfruit, fig, strawberry, rose,
raspberry, blackberry, apple,
crabapple, pear, plum, cherry, peach,
apricot, almond, and elm).
[1] Filipendula ulmaria, GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fil
ipendula
[2] A display of different apples,
We've even worked on bashless
bagging-packaging systems that are used
by wholesalers to bring you apples
without bruises. US ARS public domain
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/App
le
{JeNsinAlEZ} evolve.
Gentianales
includes gentian, dogbane, carissa
(Natal plum), oleander, logania, and
coffee.
[1] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
''Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree'', Proc
Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/268/1482/2211.abstract COPYRIG
HTED
source: http://rspb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/268/1482/2211.abstract
[2] Anthocleista grandiflora. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Anthocleista_grandiflora.jpg
evolve (includes bell pepper, paprika,
Jalapeño, cayenne pepper {KI YeN},
tomato, tobacco, petunia, tomatillo,
potato, eggplant, and sweet potato).
[1] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
''Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree'', Proc
Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/268/1482/2211.abstract COPYRIG
HTED
source: http://rspb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/268/1482/2211.abstract
[2] Atropa belladonna. Deadly
nightshade. GFDL by Kurt Stueber
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Atropa_bella-donna1.jpg
(KYUKRBiTAlEZ} evolve.
Cucurbitales includes
watermelon, musk, cantaloupe, honeydew,
casaba, cucumbers, gourds, pumpkins,
squashes (acorn, buttercup, butternut,
cushaw {Kuso}, hubbard, pattypan,
spaghetti), zucchini, and begonia.
[1] White bryony (Bryonia dioica). GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:White_bryony_male_800.jpg
[2] watermelon public domain
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Vampire_watermelon.jpg
evolve.
Fagales includes many flowers that
produce edible nuts: Birch, Hazel
{nut}, Filbert {nut}, Chestnut, Beech
{nut}, Oak {used for wood, and cork},
Walnut, Pecan, Hickory, and Bayberry.
[1] Alnus serrulata (Tag Alder) Male
catkins on right, mature female catkins
left Johnsonville, South Carolina GFDL
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Tagalder8139.jpg
[2] Speckled Alder (Alnus incana
subsp. rugosa) - leaves GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Alnus_incana_rugosa_leaves.jpg
evolve (Chicken, Turkey, Pheasant,
Peacock, Quail).
[1] Richard Dawkins, ''The Ancestor's
Tale'', (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p262. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p262.
[2] Description English: Meleagris
gallopavo (Wild Turkey) Date 30
July 2006 Source Own work Author
MONGO PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/69/Meleagris_gallopavo_W
ild_Turkey.jpg
evolve (waterfowl: ducks, geese,
swans).
[1] Richard Dawkins, ''The Ancestor's
Tale'', (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 2004), p262. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p262.
[2] Description English: Pair of
Wood Ducks Date 18 April
2007 Source
http://flickr.com/photos/sherseydc/
1623995158/ Author
http://www.flickr.com/people/sherse
ydc/ CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/08/Pair_of_Wood_Ducks.jp
g
"Laurasiatheres" evolves.
Laurasiatheres originate in the old
northern continent Laurasia.
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p200. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p200.
[2] Description Mamíferos
(mammals), based on:
Image:Giraffa camelopardalis angolensis
(head).jpg Image:Golden crowned
fruit bat.jpg
Image:Hedgehog-en.jpg Image:Lion
waiting in Nambia.jpg All of them
under a free licence already in
Wikicommons Date
11-01-2008 Source
Compilation made by myself,
Authors of the photos see
below. Author Hans Hillewaert
(Giraffe); (Bat) Original uploader was
Latorilla at en.wikipedia;
(Hedgehog-en) John Mittler at
777Life.com Free Image Archive; (Lion)
yaaaay CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a5/Mam%C3%ADferos.jpg
[1] A satellite image of Canada taken
in Summer. Snow cover is still
prominent in the Artic and on the Rocky
Mountains. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.virtualamericas.net/c
anada/maps/canada-satellite.jpg
[2] Description Aerial Photo of
Rocky Mountains, Canada. Date
Source Photo by Jacob
Grygowski. Author Jgrygowski CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c6/RockyMountainsAerial.
jpg
evolve.
Malvales includes okra, marsh mallow
{malO}, kola nut, cotton, hibiscus,
balsa, and cacao {KoKoU} (used in
chocolate).
[1] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
''Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree'', Proc
Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/268/1482/2211.abstract COPYRIG
HTED
source: http://rspb.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/268/1482/2211.abstract
[2] Bixa orellana L., floro en Lavras,
Minas Gerais, Brazilo, GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Aethionema_grandiflora0.jpg
evolve (includes maple, horse chestnut,
lychee, mahogany, cashew, mango,
pistachio, poison-ivy, and the citrus
trees: orange, lemon, and grapefruit).
[1] N Wikstrom, V Savolainen, MW Chase,
''Evolution of the angiosperms:
calibrating the family tree'', Proc
Biol Sci. 2001 Nov
7;268(1482):2211-20., (2001).
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org
/content/268/1482/2211.abstract COPYRIG
HTED
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Aethionema_grandiflora0.jpg
[2] Field Maple foliage and flowers,
Acer campestre. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Acer-campestre.JPG
(duck-billed) dinosaurs.
[1] Description Parasaurolophus
cyrtocristatus skeleton, Field
Museum. Date 1 October 2006,
00:00 Source Field Museum
Dinosaur Author Lisa Andres from
Riverside, USA Permission (Reusing
this file) See below. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/14/Parasaurolophus_cyrto
cristatus.jpg
[2] Description English: A
clickable image of the
en:Hadrosauroidea. Illustration by
en:User:Debivort. The
en:Hadrosaurids comprise the dinosaurs
commonly known as ''duck-billed''
dinosaurs. They were common herbivores
during the en:Cretaceous period, and
prey to en:therapods such as
en:Tyrannosaurus. Spectacular fossils
of hadrosaurs have been found,
including mummified specimens in which
soft tissue was preserved, skin
impressions, tracks of footprints, and
nest sites that demonstrate the animals
had parental care of offspring. Animals
are shown to scale. A crisp diagram
showing the evolutionary relationships
between the tribes of the
Hadrosauroidea, with representative
individuals shown to scale. Conveys the
diversity of the group. Every dinosaur
shown has passed review for scientific
accuracy at en:Wikipedia:WikiProject
Dinosaurs/Image review. The
individual drawings are genera, and the
branches of the tree go down to tribe.
All these groups were alive in the late
Cretaceous, and are generally known
only from a single fossil
site en:Category:Approved
dinosaur images en:Category:Approved
dinosaur scale diagrams Date
2007-06-21 (first version);
2007-10-14 (last version) Source
Originally from en.wikipedia;
description page is/was here. Author
Original uploader was Debivort at
en.wikipedia GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/14/Hadrosaur-tree-v4.jpg
evolves (shrews, moles, hedgehogs).
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p200. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p200.
[2] Description Blarina
carolinensis Deutsch: Amerikanische
Kurzschwanzspitzmaus English: American
short-tailed shrew Date Source
work of the US government:
http://cars.er.usgs.gov/pics/paynesprair
ie/paynes/paynes_33.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d4/Southern_short-tailed
_shrew.jpg
dinosaurs evolve. Protoceratops.
[1] Description Protoceratops
andrewsi skeleton at Carnegie Museum of
Natural History. Date 28 November
2009, 14:07 Source
http://www.flickr.com/photos/139061
48@N00/4168549790/ Uploaded by
FunkMonk Author Tadek Kurpaski
from London, Poland CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/7c/Andrewsi.jpg
[2] [t May or may not be
accurate] Description
Protoceratops andrewsi, a
ceratopsian from the Late Cretaceous of
Mongolia, pencil drawing, digital
coloring Date December 25, 2006,
updated October 23, 2007 Source
Own work Author Nobu Tamura
email:nobu.tamura@yahoo.com
www.palaeocritti.com GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/fc/Protoceratops_BW.jpg
{DrOmEoSORZ}: Raptors.
Raptors are Cretaceous dinosaurs, which
have large, hook claws on their feet.
Velociraptor is one example.
[1] Buitreraptor (foreground) and
Deinonychus (background) skeletons on
display at the Field Museum of Natural
History in Chicago, Illinois. Taken
August 2006 by my girlfriend, C.
Horwitz, and uploaded with permission
under the GFDL. —Steven G.
Johnson GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/29/Buitreraptor-Deinonyc
hus.jpg
[2] Description Digital +
graphite drawing of Velociraptor
mongoliensis Date 4 August
2006 Source image from
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Veloc
iraptor_dinoguy2.jpg Author Matt
Martyniuk GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/cd/Velociraptor_dinoguy2
.jpg
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p231. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p231.
[2] Description English: North
American Opossum with winter
coat. Français : Opossum de Virginie
en livrée d'hiver. Deutsch: Ein
Nordopossum (Didelphis virginiana) im
Winterfell Date 21 February
2007 Source
Wikipedia:User:Cody.pope Author
Cody Pope CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/27/Opossum_2.jpg
{KIroPTRu} (fruit bats, echolocating
bats).
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p200. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p200.
[2] Description Livingstone’s
Fruit Bat Pteropus livingstonii in
Bristol Zoo, Bristol, England. An
alternative name is Livingstone's
Flying Fox. Lives in the Comoro
Islands near Madagascar in the Indian
Ocean. Eats fruit, leaves and
flowers. Wingspan 1.4 metres. Date
September 2005 Source
Photographed by Adrian
Pingstone PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/ca/Bristol.zoo.livfruitb
at.arp.jpg
{SiToRTEODaKTilu} evolve (ancestor of
all Artiodactyla {oRTEODaKTiLu} also
called "even-toed ungulates": camels,
pigs, ruminants {includes deer,
giraffe, cattle, sheep, and antelope},
hippos, and all Cetacea {SiTASEu or
SiTAsEu}: Whales, and Dolphins).
The artiodactyla are an order
comprising the even-toed ungulates
{uNGYUlATS or uNGYUliTS} (hoofed
mammals).
Cetacea is an order or marine mammals
that includes the whales, dolphins, and
porpoises.
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p200. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p200.
[2] [t may or may not be
accurate] Description Pakicetus
inachus, a whale ancestor from the
Early Eocene of Pakistan, after
Nummelai et al., (2006), pencil
drawing, digital coloring Date 29
November 2007 Source Own
work Author Nobu Tamura
email:nobu.tamura@yahoo.com
www.palaeocritti.com GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/34/Pakicetus_BW.jpg
evolve (Shrew opossums).
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p231. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p231.
[2] English: Shrew opossum (Family:
Caenolestidae) Author: pl.wiki:
Dixi PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d5/Shrew_opossum_-_Caeno
lestidae.png
{PeriSODaKTilu} evolve (also called
"odd-toed ungulates") {uNGYUlATS or
uNGYUliTS} (Horses, Tapirs {TAPRZ },
Rhinos).
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p200. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p200.
[2] Description Two young Nokota
mares Date 2010-02-11 22:34
(UTC) Source
Nokota_Horses.jpg Author
Nokota_Horses.jpg: François Marchal
derivative work: Dana boomer
(talk) CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/de/Nokota_Horses_cropped
.jpg
(Monoclonius, Styrakosaurus,
Triceratops).
[1] Description Life restoration
of Monoclonius Date 1917 Source
http://digitallibrary.amnh.org/dspa
ce/bitstream/2246/1336/1/B037a10.pdf Au
thor Richard
Deckert Permission (Reusing this
file) See below. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1f/Monoclonius.jpg
[2] Description Monoclonius
nasicornis skeleton.[1] Date
1920 Source
http://www.copyrightexpired.com/ear
lyimage/bones/sharp/display_naturalhisto
ry1920_monoclonius.htm Author
BARNUM BROWN PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c4/Sharp_naturalhistory1
920_monoclonius.jpg
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p225. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p225.
[2] Description An aardvark at
Detroit Zoo Date 15 April
2008 Source Cropped from
File:Porcs formiguers (Orycteropus
afer).jpg Author MontageMan is
the author of the original image, I did
the crop Permission (Reusing this
file) See below. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/8a/Porc_formiguer.JPG
(Cats, Dogs, Bears, Weasels, Hyenas,
Seals, Walruses).
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p200. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p200.
[2] Description English:
Two-spotted palm civet Nandinia
binotata mounted specimen in Manchester
Museum Date 2008-07-28 (original
upload date) (Original text : July
2008) GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5a/14-nandinia_binotata.
JPG
"Pholidota" evolves (Pangolin).
Kingdom: Animalia
Class: Mammalia
Subclass: Eutheria
Superorder
Laurasiatheria
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p200. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p200.
[2] Description English: Pangolin,
Manis javanica Deutsch: Schuppentier,
Manis javanica Date May
2006 2007-03-12 (original upload
date) (Original text : mai
2006) Source photo taken by:
de:User:Piekfrosch Originally from
de.wikipedia; description page is/was
here. (Original text : selbst
fotografiert) Author Original
uploader was Piekfrosch at
de.wikipedia (Original text :
Piekfrosch
(Wikipedia-User)) Permission (Reusing
this file) Licensed under the GFDL
by the author. GFDL
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/42/Pangolin_borneo.jpg
{lAmEAlEZ} evolve (includes many
spices: mint, basil, marjoram {moRJ
uruM}, oregano, rosemary, sage, savory,
thyme, teak, sesame, snapdragon, olive,
ash, lilac, and jasmine).
[1] Common Bugle (Ajuga reptans) GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ajuga-reptans01.jpg
[2] Calamintha grandiflora. GFDL by
Kurt Stueber
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Calamintha_grandiflora2.jpg
{BiLBEZ}.
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p231. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p231.
[2] Description Eastern Barred
Bandicoot (Perameles gunnii), Poimena
Reserve, Austin's Ferry, Tasmania,
Australia. The photo taken at night
with off camera flashes. Date 31
July 2010 Source Own work Author
Noodle snacks
(http://www.noodlesnacks.com/) CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/8b/Perameles_gunni.jpg
dinosaurs known are common (both
Therapods {tERePoD}): Tyrannosaurus rex
is the top predator in North America
and Giganotosaurus is in South America.
[1] Description English: View of the
fossil/cast Tyranausaurus Rex at the
Royal Tyrell Museum in Alberta, Canada.
The image has been modified to remove
background persons and
objects. Français : Le fossile du
Tyranausaurus Rex dans le Royal Tyrell
Museum en Alberta au Canada. L'image a
été modifié pour enlever les
personnes et objets en arrière
plan. Date 27 June 2010 Source
Own work Author Pierre
Camateros CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a8/Fossil_Tyranausaurus_
Rex_at_the_Royal_Tyrell_Museum%2C_Albert
a%2C_Canada.jpg
[2] Description English: The
Wonderful Paleo Art of Heinrich Harder
- Illustrations for Die Wunder der
Urwelt 1912 Date 1912 Source
http://www.copyrightexpired.com/Hei
nrich_Harder/gigantosaurus_dwdu_1912.htm
l Author Heinrich Harder
(1858-1935) Permission (Reusing this
file) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/92/500_gigantosaurus_dwd
u1912cropped.jpg
ankylosaurs evolve (shield back and/or
clubbed tail dinosaurs) and are the
most heavily armored land-animals
known.
[1] Description the image shows an
edmontonia. a sort of dinosaur Date
5 July 2006 Source the image
i did myself based on the images found
here: [1], [2],[3] and [4] Author
Mariana Ruiz (aka:LadyofHats) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/92/Edmontonia_dinosaur.p
ng
[2] Fig 3.38 from Kardong,
''Vertebrates'', p116,
2002. COPYRIGHTED
source: Kardong, "Vertebrates", p116,
2002.
reptiles evolve.
[1] Description English: Mosasaurus
skeleton; Maastricht Natural History
Museum, The Netherlands. Date 9
August 2010 Source Own
work Author
Wilson44691 Permission (Reusing
this file) See
below. Photograph taken by Mark A.
Wilson (Department of Geology, The
College of Wooster). PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/06/MosasaurMaastricht080
910.JPG
[2] Restoration of Aigialosaurus
bucchichi, a basal
mosasaur Description Aigialosaurus
bucchichi Date 2009 Source Own
work Author FunkMonk (Michael B.
H.) CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Aigialosaurus_b
ucchichi.jpg/1280px-Aigialosaurus_bucchi
chi.jpg
{PoDiSiPeDeFORmEZ} (grebes {GreBS}).
[1] Fig. 4. Our phylogeny differs from
and agrees with previous
classifications. We merged
well-supported (>70% bootstrap values)
monophyletic clades at the tips with
the same ordinal designation across all
three classifications (e.g., 24 species
called Passerines). Only higher
relationships supported by bootstrap
values >50% are shown. Colors are as in
Fig. 2. Color bars to the right of the
tree show membership in three different
classifications: Peters' (25) (left),
Sibley and Monroe's (30) (middle), and
Livezey and Zusi's (13) (right). Black
text within the bars indicates
monophyletic orders in our phylogeny,
whereas white text within the bars
indicates nonmonophyletic orders.
Ordinal name codes: ANS (Anseriformes),
APO (Apodiformes), APT
(Apterygiformes), ARD (Ardeiformes),
BAL (Balaenicipitiformes), BUC
(Bucerotiformes), CAP
(Caprimulgiformes), CAS
(Casuariiformes), CHA
(Charadriiformes), CIC (Ciconiiformes),
CLM (Columbiformes), COL (Coliiformes),
COR (Coraciiformes), CRA (Craciformes),
CUC (Cuculiformes), FAL
(Falconiformes), GAL (Galliformes), GAV
(Gaviiformes), GLB (Galbuliformes), GRU
(Gruiformes), MUS (Musophagiformes),
OPI (Opisthocomiformes), PAS
(Passeriformes), PEL (Pelecaniformes),
PIC (Piciformes), POD
(Podicipediformes), PRO
(Procellariiformes), PSI
(Psittaciformes), RAL (Ralliformes),
RHE (Rheiformes), SPH
(Sphenisciformes), STH
(Struthioniformes), STR (Strigiformes),
TIN (Tinamiformes), TRC
(Trochiliformes), TRO (Trogoniformes),
TUR (Turniciformes), and UPU
(Upupiformes). Figure 4
from: Hackett, Shannon J. et al. “A
Phylogenomic Study of Birds Reveals
Their Evolutionary History.” Science
320.5884 (2008) : 1763 -1768.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763/F4.large.jpg
[2] Description Podiceps
nigricollis English: Black-necked
Grebe, Jan. 2007, Ibaraki
JAPAN 日本語:
ハジロカイツブリ 2007年1月
茨城県神栖市波崎
(投稿者自身による撮影) Date
5 January 2007 Source photo
taken by Maga-chan Author
Maga-chan CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/66/Podiceps_nigricollis_
001.jpg
and Pikas {PIKuZ}.
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p187. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p187.
[2] Description English: A rabbit
(A cottontail, I think) posing on the
grounds of Pompeys Pillar National
Monument. Date 10 June
2008 Source © 2008 Larry D.
Moore Author Photograph created
by Larry D. Moore (Nv8200p on
en.wikipedia) using a Kodak P880
camera. Permission (Reusing this
file) Attribution Specification:
For any reuse or distribution of this
image, please attribute with at least
the photographer's name Larry D. Moore
along with the license information (I
recommend a Creative Commons (CC)
license) in a format of your choosing.
Examples: (CC) Larry D. Moore or GFDL
photo by Larry D. Moore or Image by
Larry D. Moore, used under a Creative
Commons ShareAlike License. Please
provide a link back to this page if at
all possible. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3b/Rabbit_in_montana.jpg
Colugos {KolUGOZ}.
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p182. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p182.
[2] Description English: Indian
Tree-shrew (Anathana ellioti) in
Yercaud, India. Date Taken on
film in the 1990s - scanned on
2005-09-26 (according to EXIF
data) Source Photographed by S.
Karthikeyan ( palmfly at gmail . com )
Please contact author for usage of any
higher resolution images. Author
S. Karthikeyan CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/78/Anathana_ellioti.jpg
Gigantoraptor.
[1] Alive, the beast is thought to have
been 8 metres long, 3.5 metres high at
the hip and 1,400 kilograms in weight -
35 times as heavy as its next largest
family members and 300 times the size
of smaller ones such as Caudiperyx. It
has been classified as a new species
and genus: Gigantoraptor erlianensis.
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/news/2007/
070611/full/070611-9.html
[2] Claro Cortes IV/Reuters A model
of the Gigantoraptor''s
head. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nytimes.com/2007/06/1
3/science/13cnd-dino.html?_r=1&hp&oref=s
login
flying animal ever known,
Quetzalcoatlus {KeTZLKWoTLuS}.
[1] Description English: fossil of
Quetzalcoatlus, an extinct
pterosaur Date June 2009 Source
Own work Author
Ghedoghedo GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/ab/Quetzalcoatlus_1.JPG
[2] Description Size comparison
of the azhdarchid pterosaurs
Quetzalcoatlus northropi and
Quetzalcoatlus unnamed species, with a
human. Modified from a diagram featured
in Witton and Naish (2008). Date
29 May 2008 Source Own
work Author Matt Martyniuk
(Dinoguy2), Mark Witton and Darren
Naish CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e5/Quetzscale1.png
the Cenozoic Era, and the end of the
Cretaceous (145.5-65.5 mybn), and start
of the Tertiary (65.5-1.8 mybn) Period.
[1] Geologic Time Scale 2009 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.geosociety.org/scienc
e/timescale/timescl.pdf
47% of all genera are observed extinct.
[1] Cretaceous meteor impact.
COPYRIGHTED Benjamin Cummings.
source: http://io.uwinnipeg.ca/~simmons/
16cm05/1116/16macro.htm
[2] Timeline of mass extinctions.
COPYRIGHTED Benjamin Cummings.
source: http://io.uwinnipeg.ca/~simmons/
16cm05/1116/16macro.htm
mammals.
There is a rapid increase in new
species of fossil mammals after the
extinction of the dinosaurs.
Most early Cenozoic mammal fossils are
small.
evolve (cranes, rails, bustards).
[1] Fig. 4. Our phylogeny differs from
and agrees with previous
classifications. We merged
well-supported (>70% bootstrap values)
monophyletic clades at the tips with
the same ordinal designation across all
three classifications (e.g., 24 species
called Passerines). Only higher
relationships supported by bootstrap
values >50% are shown. Colors are as in
Fig. 2. Color bars to the right of the
tree show membership in three different
classifications: Peters' (25) (left),
Sibley and Monroe's (30) (middle), and
Livezey and Zusi's (13) (right). Black
text within the bars indicates
monophyletic orders in our phylogeny,
whereas white text within the bars
indicates nonmonophyletic orders.
Ordinal name codes: ANS (Anseriformes),
APO (Apodiformes), APT
(Apterygiformes), ARD (Ardeiformes),
BAL (Balaenicipitiformes), BUC
(Bucerotiformes), CAP
(Caprimulgiformes), CAS
(Casuariiformes), CHA
(Charadriiformes), CIC (Ciconiiformes),
CLM (Columbiformes), COL (Coliiformes),
COR (Coraciiformes), CRA (Craciformes),
CUC (Cuculiformes), FAL
(Falconiformes), GAL (Galliformes), GAV
(Gaviiformes), GLB (Galbuliformes), GRU
(Gruiformes), MUS (Musophagiformes),
OPI (Opisthocomiformes), PAS
(Passeriformes), PEL (Pelecaniformes),
PIC (Piciformes), POD
(Podicipediformes), PRO
(Procellariiformes), PSI
(Psittaciformes), RAL (Ralliformes),
RHE (Rheiformes), SPH
(Sphenisciformes), STH
(Struthioniformes), STR (Strigiformes),
TIN (Tinamiformes), TRC
(Trochiliformes), TRO (Trogoniformes),
TUR (Turniciformes), and UPU
(Upupiformes). Figure 4
from: Hackett, Shannon J. et al. “A
Phylogenomic Study of Birds Reveals
Their Evolutionary History.” Science
320.5884 (2008) : 1763 -1768.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763/F4.large.jpg
[2] By Aaron Logan, from
http://www.lightmatter.net/gallery/album
s.php w:en:Creative
Commons attribution CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/8d/Grey_Crowned_Crane.jp
g
{STriJiFORmEZ} evolve (owls).
[1] Fig. 4. Our phylogeny differs from
and agrees with previous
classifications. We merged
well-supported (>70% bootstrap values)
monophyletic clades at the tips with
the same ordinal designation across all
three classifications (e.g., 24 species
called Passerines). Only higher
relationships supported by bootstrap
values >50% are shown. Colors are as in
Fig. 2. Color bars to the right of the
tree show membership in three different
classifications: Peters' (25) (left),
Sibley and Monroe's (30) (middle), and
Livezey and Zusi's (13) (right). Black
text within the bars indicates
monophyletic orders in our phylogeny,
whereas white text within the bars
indicates nonmonophyletic orders.
Ordinal name codes: ANS (Anseriformes),
APO (Apodiformes), APT
(Apterygiformes), ARD (Ardeiformes),
BAL (Balaenicipitiformes), BUC
(Bucerotiformes), CAP
(Caprimulgiformes), CAS
(Casuariiformes), CHA
(Charadriiformes), CIC (Ciconiiformes),
CLM (Columbiformes), COL (Coliiformes),
COR (Coraciiformes), CRA (Craciformes),
CUC (Cuculiformes), FAL
(Falconiformes), GAL (Galliformes), GAV
(Gaviiformes), GLB (Galbuliformes), GRU
(Gruiformes), MUS (Musophagiformes),
OPI (Opisthocomiformes), PAS
(Passeriformes), PEL (Pelecaniformes),
PIC (Piciformes), POD
(Podicipediformes), PRO
(Procellariiformes), PSI
(Psittaciformes), RAL (Ralliformes),
RHE (Rheiformes), SPH
(Sphenisciformes), STH
(Struthioniformes), STR (Strigiformes),
TIN (Tinamiformes), TRC
(Trochiliformes), TRO (Trogoniformes),
TUR (Turniciformes), and UPU
(Upupiformes). Figure 4
from: Hackett, Shannon J. et al. “A
Phylogenomic Study of Birds Reveals
Their Evolutionary History.” Science
320.5884 (2008) : 1763 -1768.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763/F4.large.jpg
[2] Description Athene
noctua English: Little owl Español:
Mochuelo Date 2011-02-27 07:27
(UTC) Source
Athene_noctua_(portrait).jpg Author
Athene_noctua_(portrait).jpg:
Trebol-a derivative work:
Stemonitis (talk) CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/39/Athene_noctua_%28crop
ped%29.jpg
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p231. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p231.
[2] English: The southern marsupial
mole (Notoryctes typhlops). Date
Originally uploaded to
pl.wikipedia on 10 May 2006. Source
Own work; originally from
pl.wikipedia; description page is/was
here. Author Bartus.malec at
pl.wikipedia. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/4b/Notoryctes_typhlops.j
pg
Numbat {nuMBaT}.
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p231. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p231.
[2] Description English: Quoll
imaged at a rescue park, Tasmania,
Austrailia, probably Tiger Quoll
(Dasyurus maculatus), indicated by
spots on tail Photographer's note.
This is a lucky through-the-fence shot
using an old Sony camera as the animal
was quite active. The small size of the
lens is a distinct advantage in this
case (my Canon xTi would not have been
able to get the
shot). Category:Dasyurus
maculatus Date Taken November 18,
2008, uploaded December 28, 2008 (28
December 2008 (original upload
date)) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia; transferred to Commons by
User:Berichard using CommonsHelper. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f6/Dasyurus_maculatus.jp
g
{DIPrOTODoNsEu} evolve (Wombats,
Kangeroos, Possums, Koalas).
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p231. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p231.
[2] Eastern Grey Kangaroo with
joey PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0d/Kangaroo_and_joey03.j
pg
Rodents:
"Myomorpha" {MIemORFu} (rats, mice,
gerbils, voles {VOLZ}, lemmings,
hamsters).
Rodents are an order of mammals
characterized by a single pair of
ever-growing upper and lower incisors.
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p187. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p187.
[2] Description Русский:
Мышь домовая Mus
musculus Date 24 November
2008 Source Own work Author
George Shuklin
(talk) Permission (Reusing this file)
See below. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0d/%D0%9C%D1%8B%D1%88%D1
%8C_2.jpg
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p187. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p187.
[2] Description he was happily
sitting back and munching on something.
and munching, and munching... Date
4 July 2007, 12:55 Source
American Beaver Author Steve
from washington, dc,
usa Permission (Reusing this file)
See below. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6b/American_Beaver.jpg
{SiTaS-iFORmEZ} (Parrots).
[1] Brown, Joseph, Joshua Rest, Jaime
G. Moreno, Michael Sorenson, and David
Mindell. ''Strong mitochondrial DNA
support for a Cretaceous origin of
modern avian lineages.'' BMC Biology 6
(January 2008):
6:6. http://www.biomedcentral.com/1741-
7007/6/6 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.biomedcentral.com/174
1-7007/6/6
[2] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p262. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p262.
The order primates contains more than
300 species, including monkeys, apes,
and humans.
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p168. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p168.
[2] Description English: Gray
slender loris (Loris lydekkerianus)
photographed at Dindigal in Tamil
Nadu. Date 27 June 2008 Source
Own work Author Kalyan Varma
(Kalyanvarma) GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/8f/Slender_Loris.jpg
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p225. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p225.
[2] African Bush Elephant, Loxodonta
africana Description פיל
אפריקאי צילום מגיסטר
2003 Date 2005-04-01 (original
upload date) Source Originally
from he.wikipedia; description page
is/was here. Author Original
uploader was Magister at
he.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5d/AfricanElephant.jpg
[1] Andes, 70.30345W, 42.99203S NASA
World Wind screenshot. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2d/Andes_70.30345W_42.99
203S.jpg
Creodonts {KrEuDoNTS} are common.
[1] Description Patriofelis
ferox Date 2000 Source
dmitrchel@mail.ru Author
[show]Dmitry Bogdanov Link back to
Creator infobox template GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Patriofelis22DB
.jpg/1114px-Patriofelis22DB.jpg
[2] Description Hyaenodon
cayluxi Date January 2007 Source
took the foto on the ''Muséum
national d'Histoire naturelle,
Paris'' Author Ghedo PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/db/Hyaenodon_cayluxi.JPG
Clarks Fork Basin, Wyoming, USA), and
Montana, USA
[1] [t Note this is not a
reconstruction of the 60my old fossils
from Morocco but 55my fossils from
North America] Dryomomys 55 million
years ago We've now arrived at one of
your very earliest precursors,
Dryomomys. Something like this creature
begot something that begot something
that, after that eternity of time,
begot you—only time separates the two
of you. Now, imagine if you could erase
that intervening eternity for a moment
and meet your hugely distant forebear.
At a smidgen bigger than a mouse, this
nearly eldest of all your elders would
fit snugly in the palm of your
hand. Your Ancestor's
Profile Dryomomys is the most
primitive primate known from good
fossil material. (The first known
primate, Purgatorius, dating back as
far as 65 million years ago, is known
only from isolated teeth and jaw
fragments.) The animal most like
Dryomomys today is a wee being called
the pen-tailed tree shrew. Dryomomys
would have weighed about 1.3 ounces,
roughly akin to that of the smallest
living primates, the mouse lemurs of
Madagascar. Like its cousin, the
roughly contemporary but more advanced
Carpolestes, the Dryomomys skeleton
that the reconstruction is based on was
unearthed in Wyoming. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/sci
encenow/0303/images/02-mya-09.jpg
[2] Outline evolutionary history of
the Primates. Skulls of modern species
(top): Lemur catta, Cheirogaleus
medius, Galago senegalensis, Loris
tardigradus, Tarsius bancanus, Cebus
apella, Callithrix humeralifer, Maccaca
sylvanus, Pan troglodytes. Fossil
species (bottom): skull of Adapis
parisiensis, lower jaw of Microchoerus
erinaceus. Scale bars: 1 cm UNKNOWN
source: http://accessscience.com/loadBin
ary.aspx?aID=7335&filename=YB060330FG001
0.gif
mammal yet found, Andrewsarchus skull
dates from now {verify}.
[1] Description English: Original
description in the English Wikipedia:
''Andrewsarchus, autor -
Bogdanov,2006.'' - Andrewsarchus
mongoliensis from the Late Eocene of
Central Asia was the largest member of
the Mesonychia, a extinct group of
carnivorous hoofed mammals. Deutsch:
Andrewsarchus mongoliensis aus dem
späten Eozän von Innerasien war der
größte Vertreter der Mesonychia, eine
Gruppe fleischfressender huftragender
Säugetiere. Русский:
Реконструкция
эндрьюсарха Date 3
June 2007 (Upload date in the English
Wikipedia) Source English
Wikipedia Author w:en:User:DiBgd
(Богданов) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/98/Andrewsarchus_DB.jpg
[2] Description Size comparison
of several giant terrestrial predators
from various periods of geologic time.
Each grid segment = 1 square
meter. Date 17 December
2007 Source Own work Author
Dinoguy2 GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/bc/Giantpredatorsscale1.
png
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p225. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p225.
[2] Description English:
Yellow-spotted Hyrax (Heterohyrax
brucei), Serengeti NP, Tanzania Date
1 July 2009 Source Own
work Author D. Gordon E.
Robertson Permission (Reusing this
file) CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0c/Yellow-spotted_Rock_H
yrax.jpg
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p225. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p225.
[2] Description Trichechus
manatus English: This group of three
West Indian manatees (Trichechus
manatus) was photographed while feeding
on seagrass. Date Source from
http://www.csc.noaa.gov/benthic/resource
s/gallery/life/manatee.htm Author
PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/81/Manatee.jpg
Squirrels and Marmots {moRmuTS}.
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p187. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p187.
[2] Description Membres de la
famille des Suridés Date Source
Own work Author Chicoutimi
(montage) Montage 9 pictures.jpg
Karakal AndiW National Park
Service en:User:Markus Krötzsch
The Lilac Breasted Roller Nico
Conradie from Centurion, South Africa
Hans Hillewaert Sylvouille
National Park Service GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/68/Sciuridae.jpg
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p164. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p164.
[2] Description Tarsius syrichta
(Philippine Tarsier) Date
- Source
http://www.sxc.hu/photo/490924 Aut
hor Jasper Greek Golangco PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1d/Tarsius_Syrichta-GG.j
pg
[1] Smilodectes (lemur-like family
Adapidae from the Eocene Epoch)
COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://anthro.palomar.edu/earlyp
rimates/first_primates.htm
Uintatherium {YUiNTutEREuM} are the
largest land animals at this time.
[1] Description Uintatherium Date
1890s Source
http://www.copyrightexpired.com/earlyim
age/prehistoriclifeafterkt/uertatherium0
1.html Author Charles R. Knight PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/33/Uintatherium_C_R_Knig
ht.jpg
[2] Description Uintatherium
mirabile, AMNH. Date Pre-923. Source
http://www.copyrightexpired.com/earlyim
age/bones/display_osborn_uintatherium.ht
m Author Osborn. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3d/Uintatherium.jpg
[1] Description English: This
reproduction of a painting of an
undetermined species of Hyracotherium
was made to illustrate one card of a
set of 30 collector cards from ''Tiere
der Urwelt'' (Animals of the
Prehistoric World). From the Series
III. Deutsch: Diese Reproduktion eines
Gemäldes einer nicht näher
bezeichneten Art von Hyracotherium
wurde zur Illustration einer Karte aus
einem Set von 30 Sammelkarten mit dem
Titel „Tiere der Urwelt“
angefertigt. Aus der Serie III. Date
1920 (probably) Source The Wonderful
Paleo Art of Heinrich Harder Author
Heinrich Harder (1858-1935) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6e/Hyracotherium_Eohippu
s_hharder.jpg
[2] The artwork depicting horse
evolution is from Professor Donald
Levin's course in BioEvolution at the
University of Texas in Austin. This is
a brief, highly illustrated course with
many examples given of macroevolution.
Notice that the generalized branching
diagram in this illustration is less
twiggy than the more bushy branching
depicted at other resources mentioned
here. UNKNOWN
source: http://darwiniana.org/equid2t.gi
f
Kingdom: Animalia
Class: Mammalia
Subclass:
Theriiformes
Order: Rodentia
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p187. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p187.
[2] The picture shows a Gundi
Ctenodactylus The image is a variant
of Image:Gundi Ctenodactylus gundi
051117.jpg by user de:Benutzer:BS
Thurner Hof. He tagged the image as
PD. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/37/Gundi_Ctenodactylus_g
undi_051117_2.jpg
[1] Figure 3: Strict consensus of 33
equally parsimonious trees with the
optimization of activity patterns.
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v427/n6969/fig_tab/nature02126_F3.h
tml
[2] FIGURE 1. The skull of Teilhardina
asiatica sp. nov. (IVPP V12357). a,
Dorsal view of the skull. b,
Reconstruction of the skull based on
IVPP V12357, with grey shadow
indicating the missing parts. Scale
bar, 5 mm. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v427/n6969/fig_tab/nature02126_F1.h
tml
hippos with dolphins and whales.
[1] Fig. 2. Molecular time scale for
the orders of placental mammals based
on the 16,397-bp data set and maximum
likelihood tree of ref. 14 with an
opossum outgroup (data not shown), 13
fossil constraints (Materials and
Methods), and a mean prior of 105 mya
for the placental root. Ordinal
designations are listed above the
branches. Orange and green lines denote
orders with basal diversification
before or after the K/T boundary,
respectively. Black lines depict orders
for which only one taxon was available.
Asterisks denote placental taxa
included in the ''K/T body size'' taxon
set. The composition of chimeric taxa,
including caniform, caviomorph,
strepsirrhine, and sirenian, is
indicated elsewhere (14). Numbers for
internal nodes are cross-referenced in
the supporting information.
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.pnas.org/content/vol1
00/issue3/images/large/pq0334222002.jpeg
[2] Description Deutsch: Eine
Gruppe Flußpferde im Luangwa-Tal,
Sambia. English: Pod of Hippos
(Hippopotamus amphibius) in Luangwa
Valley, Zambia Français : Groupe
d'hippopotames (Hippopotamus amphibius)
dans la vallée du Luangua, en
Zambie Date 2005 Source Own
work Author Paul Maritz GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a3/Hippo_pod_edit.jpg
"Pakicetus".
[1] Fig. 2. Molecular time scale for
the orders of placental mammals based
on the 16,397-bp data set and maximum
likelihood tree of ref. 14 with an
opossum outgroup (data not shown), 13
fossil constraints (Materials and
Methods), and a mean prior of 105 mya
for the placental root. Ordinal
designations are listed above the
branches. Orange and green lines denote
orders with basal diversification
before or after the K/T boundary,
respectively. Black lines depict orders
for which only one taxon was available.
Asterisks denote placental taxa
included in the ''K/T body size'' taxon
set. The composition of chimeric taxa,
including caniform, caviomorph,
strepsirrhine, and sirenian, is
indicated elsewhere (14). Numbers for
internal nodes are cross-referenced in
the supporting information.
. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.pnas.org/content/vol1
00/issue3/images/large/pq0334222002.jpeg
[2] Illustration by Carl Buell, and
taken from
http://www.neoucom.edu/DEPTS/ANAT/Pakice
tid.html This image is copyrighted.
The copyright holder allows anyone to
use it for any purpose, provided that
this statement is added to its caption:
''Illustration by Carl Buell, and taken
from
http://www.neoucom.edu/Depts/Anat/Pakice
tid.html ''
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Pakicetus.jpg
[1] a, Skeleton in dorsal view. b,
Skull in ventral view. c, Sternum in
ventral view. Scale bars, 1 cm. All
elements are preserved on a single slab
with the skeleton exposed on one side,
and the skull and sternum on the
reverse. The counter-part slab (ROM
55351B, not shown) preserves
impressions of parts of the dorsal
aspect of the skeleton. Features
labelled: 1, calcar; 2, cranial tip of
stylohyal; 3, orbicular apophysis of
malleus; 4, keel on manubrium of
sternum. Figure 1 from: Simmons, N.
B., Seymour, K. L., Habersetzer, J. &
Gunnell, G. F. Primitive early Eocene
bat from Wyoming and the evolution of
flight and echolocation. Nature 451,
818–821 (2008)
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
451/n7180/full/nature06549.html COPYRIG
HTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v451/n7180/images/nature06549-f1.2.
jpg
[2] Figure from: Jepsen, G.L.;
MacPhee, R. D. E. (1966). ''Early
Eocene bat from Wyoming''. Science 154
(3754): 1333–1339.
doi:10.1126/science.154.3754.1333. PMID
17770307. http://www.sciencemag.org/con
tent/154/3754/1333
and http://www.jstor.org/stable/1720355
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1720
355
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p187. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p187.
[2] Photograph of a brush-tailed
porcupine in Berlin Zoologischer
Garten. Taken by Eloquence in July 2005
and released into the public
domain. Public domain PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/21/Brush_tailed_porcupin
e_Berlin_Zoo.jpg
Bushbabies, Pottos {PoTTOZ}.
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p168. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p168.
[2] Description English: Gray
slender loris (Loris lydekkerianus)
photographed at Dindigal in Tamil
Nadu. Date 27 June 2008 Source
Own work Author Kalyan Varma
(Kalyanvarma) GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/8f/Slender_Loris.jpg
[1] Ambulocetus natans in action. A
reconstruction of an early close cousin
of whales. by artist Carl
Buell. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.indiana.edu/~ensiweb/
images/whal.amb.jpeg
[2] Ambulocetus The name Ambulocetus
gives away its early ancestry. It means
'walking whale'. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.abc.net.au/beasts/evi
dence/prog1/images/evi_amulocetus_large.
jpg
animals are flightless birds.
[1] Diatryma The extinct Eocene bird
Diatryma was up to nine feet high. It
is shown here chasing down an oreodont
artiodactyl. (after Spinar 1972, from
Price 1996) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.mun.ca/biology/scarr/
Diatryma_giant_bird.gif
[2] Diatrymaby ~ministerart Digital
Art / 3-Dimensional Art / Characters /
Animals & Creatures ©2010-2012
~ministerart COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.deviantart.com/downlo
ad/154444542/Diatryma_by_ministerart.jpg
{FaLKoNiFORmEZ} (falcons, hawks,
eagles, Old World vultures).
[1] Fig. 4. Our phylogeny differs from
and agrees with previous
classifications. We merged
well-supported (>70% bootstrap values)
monophyletic clades at the tips with
the same ordinal designation across all
three classifications (e.g., 24 species
called Passerines). Only higher
relationships supported by bootstrap
values >50% are shown. Colors are as in
Fig. 2. Color bars to the right of the
tree show membership in three different
classifications: Peters' (25) (left),
Sibley and Monroe's (30) (middle), and
Livezey and Zusi's (13) (right). Black
text within the bars indicates
monophyletic orders in our phylogeny,
whereas white text within the bars
indicates nonmonophyletic orders.
Ordinal name codes: ANS (Anseriformes),
APO (Apodiformes), APT
(Apterygiformes), ARD (Ardeiformes),
BAL (Balaenicipitiformes), BUC
(Bucerotiformes), CAP
(Caprimulgiformes), CAS
(Casuariiformes), CHA
(Charadriiformes), CIC (Ciconiiformes),
CLM (Columbiformes), COL (Coliiformes),
COR (Coraciiformes), CRA (Craciformes),
CUC (Cuculiformes), FAL
(Falconiformes), GAL (Galliformes), GAV
(Gaviiformes), GLB (Galbuliformes), GRU
(Gruiformes), MUS (Musophagiformes),
OPI (Opisthocomiformes), PAS
(Passeriformes), PEL (Pelecaniformes),
PIC (Piciformes), POD
(Podicipediformes), PRO
(Procellariiformes), PSI
(Psittaciformes), RAL (Ralliformes),
RHE (Rheiformes), SPH
(Sphenisciformes), STH
(Struthioniformes), STR (Strigiformes),
TIN (Tinamiformes), TRC
(Trochiliformes), TRO (Trogoniformes),
TUR (Turniciformes), and UPU
(Upupiformes). Figure 4
from: Hackett, Shannon J. et al. “A
Phylogenomic Study of Birds Reveals
Their Evolutionary History.” Science
320.5884 (2008) : 1763 -1768.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763/F4.large.jpg
[2] Description English: Bald Eagle
(Haliaeetus leucocephalus) in
Tree Date July 2005 Source
U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service Author Hillebrand,
Steve PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/69/Haliaeetus_leucocepha
lus-tree-USFWS.jpg
dassie rats (rodents) evolve.
Kingdom: Animalia
Class: Mammalia
Subclass:
Theriiformes
Order: Rodentia
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p187. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p187.
[2] Description Petromus typicus,
''Noki'' Afrikaans: 'n Dassierot,
afgeneem by Twyfelfontein, in Kunene,
Namibië Deutsch: Eine Felsenratte,
aufgenommen in Twyfelfontein, Kunene,
Namibia English: A Dassie Rat, image
taken at Twyfelfontein, in Kunene,
Namibia Date 17 August
2010 Source Namibnat,
Flickr Author Vernon
Swanepoel CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b0/Petromus_typicus.jpg
guinea pigs, agoutis {uGUTEZ},
capybaras {KaPuBoRoZ}.
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p187. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p187.
[2] Description English: A North
American porcupine (Erethizon dorsatum)
rests in a tree in Montreal's
BioDome. Date 20 July
2004 Source self-made with a
Nikon D70 Author J. Glover CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/83/Porcupine-BioDome.jpg
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p168. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p168.
[2] Description Aye-aye
(Daubentonia madagascariensis) Date
9 May 2003 Source Own
work Author Tom Junek CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/ba/Aye-aye_%28Daubentoni
a_madagascariensis%29.jpg
form.
[1] Screenshot from Worldwind
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c1/Alps_from_space.png
weasel-like ancestor of bears and dogs.
World Monkeys" (Sakis, Spider, Howler
and Squirrel monkeys, Capuchins {KaP YU
CiNZ}, Tamarins).
The ancestor of all currently living
New World monkeys may have reached the
Americas from Africa by crossing the
early Atlantic Ocean, perhaps on fallen
trees over a chain of islands.
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p149. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p149.
[2] Description English: A
critically endangered Brown Spider
Monkey, Ateles hybridus, with uncommon
blue eyes. Shot in captivity in
Barquisimeto,
Venezuela Русский:
Паукообразная
обезьяна Ateles hybridus с
редко встречающимися
голубыми глазами.
Сфотографирована в
неволе в
Венесуэле. Date
September 2008 Source
Image:BrownSpiderMonkey.jpg Author
http://www.birdphotos.com edit by
Fir0002 Permission (Reusing this
file) See below. Attribution must
appear on same page as photo. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/dc/BrownSpiderMonkey_%28
edit2%29.jpg
[1] Description Hesperocyon
gregarius 32 - 30 million years ago;
Early Oligocene; Oldest recognized
member of the dog family. Date 10
October 2008, 10:42 Source
Hesperocyon gregarius (Dog)
Uploaded by FunkMonk Author
Claire H. from New York City,
USA Permission (Reusing this file)
CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5f/Hesperocyon_Gregarius
.jpg
[2] Description Life restoration
of Hesperocyon (Cynodictis) gregarius
from W.B. Scott's A History of Land
Mammals in the Western Hemisphere. New
York: The Macmillan Company. Date
1913 Source
http://www.archive.org/details/ahis
torylandmam00scotgoog Author
Robert Bruce
Horsfall Permission (Reusing this
file) See below. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/69/Cynodictis.jpg
{oPoD-i-FORmEZ} (hummingbirds, swifts).
[1] Fig. 4. Our phylogeny differs from
and agrees with previous
classifications. We merged
well-supported (>70% bootstrap values)
monophyletic clades at the tips with
the same ordinal designation across all
three classifications (e.g., 24 species
called Passerines). Only higher
relationships supported by bootstrap
values >50% are shown. Colors are as in
Fig. 2. Color bars to the right of the
tree show membership in three different
classifications: Peters' (25) (left),
Sibley and Monroe's (30) (middle), and
Livezey and Zusi's (13) (right). Black
text within the bars indicates
monophyletic orders in our phylogeny,
whereas white text within the bars
indicates nonmonophyletic orders.
Ordinal name codes: ANS (Anseriformes),
APO (Apodiformes), APT
(Apterygiformes), ARD (Ardeiformes),
BAL (Balaenicipitiformes), BUC
(Bucerotiformes), CAP
(Caprimulgiformes), CAS
(Casuariiformes), CHA
(Charadriiformes), CIC (Ciconiiformes),
CLM (Columbiformes), COL (Coliiformes),
COR (Coraciiformes), CRA (Craciformes),
CUC (Cuculiformes), FAL
(Falconiformes), GAL (Galliformes), GAV
(Gaviiformes), GLB (Galbuliformes), GRU
(Gruiformes), MUS (Musophagiformes),
OPI (Opisthocomiformes), PAS
(Passeriformes), PEL (Pelecaniformes),
PIC (Piciformes), POD
(Podicipediformes), PRO
(Procellariiformes), PSI
(Psittaciformes), RAL (Ralliformes),
RHE (Rheiformes), SPH
(Sphenisciformes), STH
(Struthioniformes), STR (Strigiformes),
TIN (Tinamiformes), TRC
(Trochiliformes), TRO (Trogoniformes),
TUR (Turniciformes), and UPU
(Upupiformes). Figure 4
from: Hackett, Shannon J. et al. “A
Phylogenomic Study of Birds Reveals
Their Evolutionary History.” Science
320.5884 (2008) : 1763 -1768.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763/F4.large.jpg
[2] Description Ruby-throated
hummingbird public domain USFWA Date
11 February 2003 Source
Cropped from U.S. Fish and
Wildlife Service Digital Library
System Author Steve Maslowski PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/87/Rubythroathummer65.jp
g
evolve.
[1] Fig. 4. Our phylogeny differs from
and agrees with previous
classifications. We merged
well-supported (>70% bootstrap values)
monophyletic clades at the tips with
the same ordinal designation across all
three classifications (e.g., 24 species
called Passerines). Only higher
relationships supported by bootstrap
values >50% are shown. Colors are as in
Fig. 2. Color bars to the right of the
tree show membership in three different
classifications: Peters' (25) (left),
Sibley and Monroe's (30) (middle), and
Livezey and Zusi's (13) (right). Black
text within the bars indicates
monophyletic orders in our phylogeny,
whereas white text within the bars
indicates nonmonophyletic orders.
Ordinal name codes: ANS (Anseriformes),
APO (Apodiformes), APT
(Apterygiformes), ARD (Ardeiformes),
BAL (Balaenicipitiformes), BUC
(Bucerotiformes), CAP
(Caprimulgiformes), CAS
(Casuariiformes), CHA
(Charadriiformes), CIC (Ciconiiformes),
CLM (Columbiformes), COL (Coliiformes),
COR (Coraciiformes), CRA (Craciformes),
CUC (Cuculiformes), FAL
(Falconiformes), GAL (Galliformes), GAV
(Gaviiformes), GLB (Galbuliformes), GRU
(Gruiformes), MUS (Musophagiformes),
OPI (Opisthocomiformes), PAS
(Passeriformes), PEL (Pelecaniformes),
PIC (Piciformes), POD
(Podicipediformes), PRO
(Procellariiformes), PSI
(Psittaciformes), RAL (Ralliformes),
RHE (Rheiformes), SPH
(Sphenisciformes), STH
(Struthioniformes), STR (Strigiformes),
TIN (Tinamiformes), TRC
(Trochiliformes), TRO (Trogoniformes),
TUR (Turniciformes), and UPU
(Upupiformes). Figure 4
from: Hackett, Shannon J. et al. “A
Phylogenomic Study of Birds Reveals
Their Evolutionary History.” Science
320.5884 (2008) : 1763 -1768.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763/F4.large.jpg
[2] Description Speckled
Mousebird, Colius striatus, Sweetwaters
Game Reserve, Kenya Date 24 June
2007 Source Own work Author
JerryFriedman GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/8c/Colius_striatus1.jpg
evolve (cuckoos, roadrunners).
[1] Fig. 4. Our phylogeny differs from
and agrees with previous
classifications. We merged
well-supported (>70% bootstrap values)
monophyletic clades at the tips with
the same ordinal designation across all
three classifications (e.g., 24 species
called Passerines). Only higher
relationships supported by bootstrap
values >50% are shown. Colors are as in
Fig. 2. Color bars to the right of the
tree show membership in three different
classifications: Peters' (25) (left),
Sibley and Monroe's (30) (middle), and
Livezey and Zusi's (13) (right). Black
text within the bars indicates
monophyletic orders in our phylogeny,
whereas white text within the bars
indicates nonmonophyletic orders.
Ordinal name codes: ANS (Anseriformes),
APO (Apodiformes), APT
(Apterygiformes), ARD (Ardeiformes),
BAL (Balaenicipitiformes), BUC
(Bucerotiformes), CAP
(Caprimulgiformes), CAS
(Casuariiformes), CHA
(Charadriiformes), CIC (Ciconiiformes),
CLM (Columbiformes), COL (Coliiformes),
COR (Coraciiformes), CRA (Craciformes),
CUC (Cuculiformes), FAL
(Falconiformes), GAL (Galliformes), GAV
(Gaviiformes), GLB (Galbuliformes), GRU
(Gruiformes), MUS (Musophagiformes),
OPI (Opisthocomiformes), PAS
(Passeriformes), PEL (Pelecaniformes),
PIC (Piciformes), POD
(Podicipediformes), PRO
(Procellariiformes), PSI
(Psittaciformes), RAL (Ralliformes),
RHE (Rheiformes), SPH
(Sphenisciformes), STH
(Struthioniformes), STR (Strigiformes),
TIN (Tinamiformes), TRC
(Trochiliformes), TRO (Trogoniformes),
TUR (Turniciformes), and UPU
(Upupiformes). Figure 4
from: Hackett, Shannon J. et al. “A
Phylogenomic Study of Birds Reveals
Their Evolutionary History.” Science
320.5884 (2008) : 1763 -1768.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763/F4.large.jpg
[2] Description English: Common
cuckoo Deutsch: Kuckuck Date
Source Own work Author
Vogelartinfo GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b0/Cuculus_canorus_vogel
artinfo_chris_romeiks_CHR0791.jpg
(woodpeckers, toucans).
[1] Fig. 4. Our phylogeny differs from
and agrees with previous
classifications. We merged
well-supported (>70% bootstrap values)
monophyletic clades at the tips with
the same ordinal designation across all
three classifications (e.g., 24 species
called Passerines). Only higher
relationships supported by bootstrap
values >50% are shown. Colors are as in
Fig. 2. Color bars to the right of the
tree show membership in three different
classifications: Peters' (25) (left),
Sibley and Monroe's (30) (middle), and
Livezey and Zusi's (13) (right). Black
text within the bars indicates
monophyletic orders in our phylogeny,
whereas white text within the bars
indicates nonmonophyletic orders.
Ordinal name codes: ANS (Anseriformes),
APO (Apodiformes), APT
(Apterygiformes), ARD (Ardeiformes),
BAL (Balaenicipitiformes), BUC
(Bucerotiformes), CAP
(Caprimulgiformes), CAS
(Casuariiformes), CHA
(Charadriiformes), CIC (Ciconiiformes),
CLM (Columbiformes), COL (Coliiformes),
COR (Coraciiformes), CRA (Craciformes),
CUC (Cuculiformes), FAL
(Falconiformes), GAL (Galliformes), GAV
(Gaviiformes), GLB (Galbuliformes), GRU
(Gruiformes), MUS (Musophagiformes),
OPI (Opisthocomiformes), PAS
(Passeriformes), PEL (Pelecaniformes),
PIC (Piciformes), POD
(Podicipediformes), PRO
(Procellariiformes), PSI
(Psittaciformes), RAL (Ralliformes),
RHE (Rheiformes), SPH
(Sphenisciformes), STH
(Struthioniformes), STR (Strigiformes),
TIN (Tinamiformes), TRC
(Trochiliformes), TRO (Trogoniformes),
TUR (Turniciformes), and UPU
(Upupiformes). Figure 4
from: Hackett, Shannon J. et al. “A
Phylogenomic Study of Birds Reveals
Their Evolutionary History.” Science
320.5884 (2008) : 1763 -1768.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763/F4.large.jpg
[2] Description Hispaniolan
Woodpecker / Melanerpes striatus Date
20 January 2004 Source
http://www.pbase.com/wwcsig/image/4
1280575 Author Wolfgang
Wander GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1b/Melanerpes_striatus00
1.jpg
and whales.
[1] The relations of early whales
(archaeocetes) to artiodactyls and the
two extant groups, odontoceti and
mysticeti. Tree by Felix G. Marx,
University of Bristol. Images of
cetacenas adapted from National
Geographic's The evolution of whales by
Douglas H. Chadwick, Shawn Gould and
Robert Clark Re-illustrated for public
access distribution by Sharon Mooney
©2006. Open source licence CC ASA
2.5 CC
source: http://palaeo.gly.bris.ac.uk/pal
aeofiles/whales/pictures/clad.jpg
[2] Prothero, ''Evolution What the
Fossils Say and Why It Matters'', 2007,
p298.
source: Prothero, "Evolution What the
Fossils Say and Why It Matters", 2007,
p298.
whale, killer whale) and Baleen whales
(blue, humpback, gray whale) lines
split.
[1] Fig. 2. Molecular time scale for
the orders of placental mammals based
on the 16,397-bp data set and maximum
likelihood tree of ref. 14 with an
opossum outgroup (data not shown), 13
fossil constraints (Materials and
Methods), and a mean prior of 105 mya
for the placental root. Ordinal
designations are listed above the
branches. Orange and green lines denote
orders with basal diversification
before or after the K/T boundary,
respectively. Black lines depict orders
for which only one taxon was available.
Asterisks denote placental taxa
included in the ''K/T body size'' taxon
set. The composition of chimeric taxa,
including caniform, caviomorph,
strepsirrhine, and sirenian, is
indicated elsewhere (14). Numbers for
internal nodes are cross-referenced in
the supporting information.
. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.pnas.org/content/vol1
00/issue3/images/large/pq0334222002.jpeg
[1] Llanocetus denticrenatus UNKNOWN
source: http://ocean.si.edu/sites/defaul
t/files/WhaleEv_04llanocetus.png?1259868
752
[2] Description Frontal view from
below of the skull of a Llanocetus
denticrenatus in the Sant Hall of
Oceans in the Smithsonian Museum of
Natural History in Washington, D.C. The
name is a tribute to Dr. George Llanos,
and is combined with the Latin name for
whale (''cetus''). ''Denticrenatus''
means ''small-toothed.'' It is an
intermediate form between toothed and
baleen whales. Llanocetus
denticrenatus is the oldest known
mysticete (or baleen whale). It was
discovered in the La Meseta Formation
on Seymour Island in Antarctica in
1989. Only the skull has been unearthed
so far; the skeleton has yet to be
fully unearthed and described. It
probably lived 34 to 35 million years
ago in colder seas near the Antarctic.
It had tiny peg-like teeth which jutted
out in a fan-like spread from a larger
tooth (which was covered over by the
gums). From these teeth grew primitive
baleen (stuff like your fingernails are
made of). These baleen-growing teeth
were very widely separated within the
jaw. The skull is long and narrow,
somewhat looking like a dolphin's. The
upper jaw is exceptionally slender
(more so than the lower jaw), and the
lower jaw is exceptionally wide at the
rear. It's not entirely clear what the
body looked like, but it probably
looked like a minke whale. It was about
30 feet long (9 m). Date 7 January
2012, 13:02 Source Llanocetus
denticrinatus skull 01 -
Smithsonian Uploaded by
FunkMonk Author Tim from
Washington, D.C., USA, United States of
America CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Llanocetus_dent
icrinatus.jpg/1280px-Llanocetus_denticri
natus.jpg
known, the hornless Rhinoceros,
Paraceratherium lives at this time.
[1] Description Skelton of
Indricotherium transouralicum
in National Science Museum,
Tokyo. Date 8 November
2006 Source Photo by
CooZone Author CooZone GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d9/Indricotherium_skelto
n.jpg
[2] Description
Paraceratherium The
Paraceratherium (jr synonym=
Baluchitherium) was an early rhinoceros
which lived in Asia about 20 to 30
million years ago during the late
Oligocene (24 to 38 million years ago
)and early Miocene (5 to 24 million
years ago) Date All images on the
site are at least PD-US.[1] Source
http://www.50birds.com/extan/gextan
imals1.htm Author Unknown PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/9c/Paraceratherium_size.
jpg
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p168. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p168.
[2] Description English:
Ring-tailed Lemur (Lemur catta) at
Berenty Private Reserve in
Madagascar Date 4 October
2009 Source Own work Author
Alex Dunkel
(Visionholder) Permission (Reusing
this file) See below. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f5/Lemur_catta_001.jpg
{PaSRiFORmEZ} (perching songbirds)
evolve. This order includes many common
birds: crows, jays, sparrows, warblers,
mockingbirds, robins, orioles,
bluebirds, vireos {VEREOZ}, larks,
finches.
More than half of all species of bird
are passerines.
[1] Fig. 4. Our phylogeny differs from
and agrees with previous
classifications. We merged
well-supported (>70% bootstrap values)
monophyletic clades at the tips with
the same ordinal designation across all
three classifications (e.g., 24 species
called Passerines). Only higher
relationships supported by bootstrap
values >50% are shown. Colors are as in
Fig. 2. Color bars to the right of the
tree show membership in three different
classifications: Peters' (25) (left),
Sibley and Monroe's (30) (middle), and
Livezey and Zusi's (13) (right). Black
text within the bars indicates
monophyletic orders in our phylogeny,
whereas white text within the bars
indicates nonmonophyletic orders.
Ordinal name codes: ANS (Anseriformes),
APO (Apodiformes), APT
(Apterygiformes), ARD (Ardeiformes),
BAL (Balaenicipitiformes), BUC
(Bucerotiformes), CAP
(Caprimulgiformes), CAS
(Casuariiformes), CHA
(Charadriiformes), CIC (Ciconiiformes),
CLM (Columbiformes), COL (Coliiformes),
COR (Coraciiformes), CRA (Craciformes),
CUC (Cuculiformes), FAL
(Falconiformes), GAL (Galliformes), GAV
(Gaviiformes), GLB (Galbuliformes), GRU
(Gruiformes), MUS (Musophagiformes),
OPI (Opisthocomiformes), PAS
(Passeriformes), PEL (Pelecaniformes),
PIC (Piciformes), POD
(Podicipediformes), PRO
(Procellariiformes), PSI
(Psittaciformes), RAL (Ralliformes),
RHE (Rheiformes), SPH
(Sphenisciformes), STH
(Struthioniformes), STR (Strigiformes),
TIN (Tinamiformes), TRC
(Trochiliformes), TRO (Trogoniformes),
TUR (Turniciformes), and UPU
(Upupiformes). Figure 4
from: Hackett, Shannon J. et al. “A
Phylogenomic Study of Birds Reveals
Their Evolutionary History.” Science
320.5884 (2008) : 1763 -1768.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/320/5884/1763/F4.large.jpg
[2] Western Bluebirds (female on
left) Irvine, CA PD
source: http://tedhuntington.com/bluebir
ds.jpg
(Primates) evolve.
Kingdom: Animalia
Class: Mammalia
Subclass: Eutheria
Order:
Primates
Family: Indridae
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p168. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p168.
[2] Description English: Indri
(Indri indri) in Madagascar Date
18 May 2009 Source
email Author Erik Patel CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/83/Indri_indri_001.jpg
[1] Proailurus Wikimedia
Commons Proailurus may or may not have
been a true feline; some experts place
it in the Feloidea family, which
includes not only cats, but also hyenas
and mongooses. Whatever the case,
Proailurus was a relatively small
carnivore, only a little bit bigger
than a modern tabby. GNU
source: http://0.tqn.com/d/dinosaurs/1/0
/e/6/-/-/proailurus.jpg
(primates) evolve.
Kingdom: Animalia
Class: Mammalia
Subclass: Eutheria
Order:
Primates
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p168. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p168.
[2] Description Zwerg-Mausmaki
(Microcebus myoxinus) Date
2008.02.10. Source Deutsch
wikipedia
http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bild:Microz
eb.jpg Author
User:Bikeadventure PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/93/Microcebus_myoxinus.j
pg
World Monkeys" (Macaques, Baboons,
Mandrills, Proboscis and Colobus
{KoLiBeS} monkeys).
Africa
[1] From: Stewart, Caro-Beth, and Todd
R Disotell. “Primate evolution - in
and out of Africa.” Current Biology
8.16 (1998) :
R582-R588. http://www.sciencedirect.com
/science/article/pii/S0960982207003673
Figure 2. A synthetic hypothesis of
catarrhine primate evolution. The
branching order shown for the living
species is well-supported by numerous
molecular phylogenetic studies (for
example [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 18, 24
and 25]). We present the dates of
divergence calculated by Goodman and
colleagues [11], on the understanding
that these are still rough estimates
and more precise measurements are
needed, especially for the Old World
monkeys. The fossil species (genus
names in italics) were placed on this
tree by parsimony analyses of
relatively large morphological datasets
[4, 11, 14 and 15]. Known dates for
fossils [1, 2 and 21] are indicated by
the thicker lines; these lines are
attached to the tree as determined by
the parsimony analyses, although the
dates of the attachment points are our
best guesses. Species found in Africa
are in red and species found in Eurasia
are in black. The continental locations
of the ancestral lineages were inferred
by parsimony using the computer program
MacClade [30]. The intercontinental
dispersal events required, at a
minimum, to explain the distribution of
the living and fossil species are
indicated by the arrows. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VRT-4C4DVM4-D
&_user=4422&_handle=V-WA-A-W-WC-MsSAYVW-
UUW-U-AAVECYCCBC-AAVDAZZBBC-YCACYAZCV-WC
-U&_fmt=full&_coverDate=07%2F30%2F1998&_
rdoc=12&_orig=browse&_srch=%23toc%236243
%231998%23999919983%23494082!&_cdi=6243&
view=c&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlV
ersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=5558415c4ccd34
6c64e2e6be03c3865e
[2] Description Colobus
angolensis monkey Date 13 June
2007, 13:13 Source Angola Colobus
Monkey #6 Author Ryan E.
Poplin CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5a/Colobus_angolensis.jp
g
(Gibbons and Hominids) loses its tail.
[1] From: Stewart, Caro-Beth, and Todd
R Disotell. “Primate evolution - in
and out of Africa.” Current Biology
8.16 (1998) :
R582-R588. http://www.sciencedirect.com
/science/article/pii/S0960982207003673
Figure 2. A synthetic hypothesis of
catarrhine primate evolution. The
branching order shown for the living
species is well-supported by numerous
molecular phylogenetic studies (for
example [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 18, 24
and 25]). We present the dates of
divergence calculated by Goodman and
colleagues [11], on the understanding
that these are still rough estimates
and more precise measurements are
needed, especially for the Old World
monkeys. The fossil species (genus
names in italics) were placed on this
tree by parsimony analyses of
relatively large morphological datasets
[4, 11, 14 and 15]. Known dates for
fossils [1, 2 and 21] are indicated by
the thicker lines; these lines are
attached to the tree as determined by
the parsimony analyses, although the
dates of the attachment points are our
best guesses. Species found in Africa
are in red and species found in Eurasia
are in black. The continental locations
of the ancestral lineages were inferred
by parsimony using the computer program
MacClade [30]. The intercontinental
dispersal events required, at a
minimum, to explain the distribution of
the living and fossil species are
indicated by the arrows. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VRT-4C4DVM4-D
&_user=4422&_handle=V-WA-A-W-WC-MsSAYVW-
UUW-U-AAVECYCCBC-AAVDAZZBBC-YCACYAZCV-WC
-U&_fmt=full&_coverDate=07%2F30%2F1998&_
rdoc=12&_orig=browse&_srch=%23toc%236243
%231998%23999919983%23494082!&_cdi=6243&
view=c&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlV
ersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=5558415c4ccd34
6c64e2e6be03c3865e
[2] Gregoire: 62-year-old
chimpanzee Description English:
Chimpanzee named ''Gregoire'' born in
1944 (Jane Goodall sanctuary of
Tchimpounga in Congo Brazzaville) -
Picture taken the 9th of December
2006 Français : Chimpanzé nommé
''Grégoire'' né en 1944 (sanctuaire
Jane Goodall de Tchimpounga au Congo
Brazzaville) - Photo prise le 9
décembre 2006 Date 9 December
2006 Source Own work Author
Delphine
Bruyère Permission (Reusing this
file) Attribution : Delphine
Bruyere GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/ba/2006-12-09_Chimpanzee
_Gregoire_D_Bruyere.JPG
Guinea
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
239. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), 239.
[2] The echidna is one of a handful of
mammals to give birth to its offspring
by laying eggs. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3b/Long-beakedEchidna.jp
g
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
239. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), 239.
[2] Description Description
Swiming Platypus * Photographer Peter
Scheunis * Source self-made Date
September 2004 Location Broken
River-Queensland-Australia Date
2010-01-18 03:46 (UTC) Source
Platypus_BrokenRiver_QLD_Australia.jpg
Author
Platypus_BrokenRiver_QLD_Australia.jpg:
Peterdvv derivative work: Bobisbob
(talk) CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/12/Platypus_BrokenRiver_
QLD_Australia2.png
[1] Figure 2. A synthetic hypothesis of
catarrhine primate evolution. The
branching order shown for the living
species is well-supported by numerous
molecular phylogenetic studies (for
example [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 18, 24
and 25]). We present the dates of
divergence calculated by Goodman and
colleagues [11], on the understanding
that these are still rough estimates
and more precise measurements are
needed, especially for the Old World
monkeys. The fossil species (genus
names in italics) were placed on this
tree by parsimony analyses of
relatively large morphological datasets
[4, 11, 14 and 15]. Known dates for
fossils [1, 2 and 21] are indicated by
the thicker lines; these lines are
attached to the tree as determined by
the parsimony analyses, although the
dates of the attachment points are our
best guesses. Species found in Africa
are in red and species found in Eurasia
are in black. The continental locations
of the ancestral lineages were inferred
by parsimony using the computer program
MacClade [30]. The intercontinental
dispersal events required, at a
minimum, to explain the distribution of
the living and fossil species are
indicated by the arrows. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VRT-4C4DVM4-D
&_user=4422&_handle=V-WA-A-W-WC-MsSAYVW-
UUW-U-AAVECYCCBC-AAVDAZZBBC-YCACYAZCV-WC
-U&_fmt=full&_coverDate=07%2F30%2F1998&_
rdoc=12&_orig=browse&_srch=%23toc%236243
%231998%23999919983%23494082!&_cdi=6243&
view=c&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlV
ersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=5558415c4ccd34
6c64e2e6be03c3865e
[2] Proconsul COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://www.andromeda.rutgers.edu
/~biosci/RutgersHumanEcology/Proconsul.j
pg
[1] Figure 2. A synthetic hypothesis of
catarrhine primate evolution. The
branching order shown for the living
species is well-supported by numerous
molecular phylogenetic studies (for
example [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 18, 24
and 25]). We present the dates of
divergence calculated by Goodman and
colleagues [11], on the understanding
that these are still rough estimates
and more precise measurements are
needed, especially for the Old World
monkeys. The fossil species (genus
names in italics) were placed on this
tree by parsimony analyses of
relatively large morphological datasets
[4, 11, 14 and 15]. Known dates for
fossils [1, 2 and 21] are indicated by
the thicker lines; these lines are
attached to the tree as determined by
the parsimony analyses, although the
dates of the attachment points are our
best guesses. Species found in Africa
are in red and species found in Eurasia
are in black. The continental locations
of the ancestral lineages were inferred
by parsimony using the computer program
MacClade [30]. The intercontinental
dispersal events required, at a
minimum, to explain the distribution of
the living and fossil species are
indicated by the arrows. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VRT-4C4DVM4-D
&_user=4422&_handle=V-WA-A-W-WC-MsSAYVW-
UUW-U-AAVECYCCBC-AAVDAZZBBC-YCACYAZCV-WC
-U&_fmt=full&_coverDate=07%2F30%2F1998&_
rdoc=12&_orig=browse&_srch=%23toc%236243
%231998%23999919983%23494082!&_cdi=6243&
view=c&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlV
ersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=5558415c4ccd34
6c64e2e6be03c3865e
[2] Description Deutsch:
Weißhandgibbons Date 25 May
2006 Source Own work Author
User:MatthiasKabel GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/38/Hylobates_lar_pair_of
_white_and_black_01.jpg
Orangutans.
[1] From: Stewart, Caro-Beth, and Todd
R Disotell. “Primate evolution - in
and out of Africa.” Current Biology
8.16 (1998) :
R582-R588. http://www.sciencedirect.com
/science/article/pii/S0960982207003673
Figure 2. A synthetic hypothesis of
catarrhine primate evolution. The
branching order shown for the living
species is well-supported by numerous
molecular phylogenetic studies (for
example [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 18, 24
and 25]). We present the dates of
divergence calculated by Goodman and
colleagues [11], on the understanding
that these are still rough estimates
and more precise measurements are
needed, especially for the Old World
monkeys. The fossil species (genus
names in italics) were placed on this
tree by parsimony analyses of
relatively large morphological datasets
[4, 11, 14 and 15]. Known dates for
fossils [1, 2 and 21] are indicated by
the thicker lines; these lines are
attached to the tree as determined by
the parsimony analyses, although the
dates of the attachment points are our
best guesses. Species found in Africa
are in red and species found in Eurasia
are in black. The continental locations
of the ancestral lineages were inferred
by parsimony using the computer program
MacClade [30]. The intercontinental
dispersal events required, at a
minimum, to explain the distribution of
the living and fossil species are
indicated by the arrows. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VRT-4C4DVM4-D
&_user=4422&_handle=V-WA-A-W-WC-MsSAYVW-
UUW-U-AAVECYCCBC-AAVDAZZBBC-YCACYAZCV-WC
-U&_fmt=full&_coverDate=07%2F30%2F1998&_
rdoc=12&_orig=browse&_srch=%23toc%236243
%231998%23999919983%23494082!&_cdi=6243&
view=c&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlV
ersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=5558415c4ccd34
6c64e2e6be03c3865e
[2] Taken from Wikipedia. Same
name. ''Orangutan image taken by Tom
Low at Camp Leakey, Tanjung Puting,
Kalimantan, Indonesia (2003).'' PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0b/Orangutan.jpg
Africa.
[1] From: Stewart, Caro-Beth, and Todd
R Disotell. “Primate evolution - in
and out of Africa.” Current Biology
8.16 (1998) :
R582-R588. http://www.sciencedirect.com
/science/article/pii/S0960982207003673
Figure 2. A synthetic hypothesis of
catarrhine primate evolution. The
branching order shown for the living
species is well-supported by numerous
molecular phylogenetic studies (for
example [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 18, 24
and 25]). We present the dates of
divergence calculated by Goodman and
colleagues [11], on the understanding
that these are still rough estimates
and more precise measurements are
needed, especially for the Old World
monkeys. The fossil species (genus
names in italics) were placed on this
tree by parsimony analyses of
relatively large morphological datasets
[4, 11, 14 and 15]. Known dates for
fossils [1, 2 and 21] are indicated by
the thicker lines; these lines are
attached to the tree as determined by
the parsimony analyses, although the
dates of the attachment points are our
best guesses. Species found in Africa
are in red and species found in Eurasia
are in black. The continental locations
of the ancestral lineages were inferred
by parsimony using the computer program
MacClade [30]. The intercontinental
dispersal events required, at a
minimum, to explain the distribution of
the living and fossil species are
indicated by the arrows. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VRT-4C4DVM4-D
&_user=4422&_handle=V-WA-A-W-WC-MsSAYVW-
UUW-U-AAVECYCCBC-AAVDAZZBBC-YCACYAZCV-WC
-U&_fmt=full&_coverDate=07%2F30%2F1998&_
rdoc=12&_orig=browse&_srch=%23toc%236243
%231998%23999919983%23494082!&_cdi=6243&
view=c&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlV
ersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=5558415c4ccd34
6c64e2e6be03c3865e
[2] Description English: Male
silverback w:Gorilla, Gorilla gorilla
in SF zoo Date Source Own
work Author Mila
Zinkova Permission (Reusing this
file) See below. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/50/Male_gorilla_in_SF_zo
o.jpg
ancestor of chimpanzees and humans.
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p106. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p106.
[2] Gregoire: 62-year-old
chimpanzee Description English:
Chimpanzee named ''Gregoire'' born in
1944 (Jane Goodall sanctuary of
Tchimpounga in Congo Brazzaville) -
Picture taken the 9th of December
2006 Français : Chimpanzé nommé
''Grégoire'' né en 1944 (sanctuaire
Jane Goodall de Tchimpounga au Congo
Brazzaville) - Photo prise le 9
décembre 2006 Date 9 December
2006 Source Own work Author
Delphine
Bruyère Permission (Reusing this
file) Attribution : Delphine
Bruyere GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/ba/2006-12-09_Chimpanzee
_Gregoire_D_Bruyere.JPG
("Magnificent Argentine Bird") the
largest flying bird ever known lives in
Argentina.
[1] Argentavis magnificens COPYRIGHTED
source: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/scien
ce/nature/6262740.stm#map
[2] This handout illustration recieved
courtesy of Proceedings of the National
Academy of Sciences (PNAS) shows
Argentavis magnificens, the world's
largest known flying bird with a
wingspan of 7 meters, (7.6 yds) about
the size of a Cessna 152 aircraft,
soaring across the Miocene skies of the
Argentinean Pampas six million years
ago. Like todayâs condors,
Argentavis was a lazy glider that
relied either on updrafts, in the rocky
Andes, or thermals, on the grassy
pampas, to provide lifting
power.(AFP/PNAS-HO/Jeff
Martz) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://news.yahoo.com/s/ap/20070
703/ap_on_sc/biggest_bird;_ylt=An2dhz0Fn
wfN7LIRXnKg7VfMWM0F
{JIGaNTOPitiKuS}.
[1] Figure 2. A synthetic hypothesis of
catarrhine primate evolution. The
branching order shown for the living
species is well-supported by numerous
molecular phylogenetic studies (for
example [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 18, 24
and 25]). We present the dates of
divergence calculated by Goodman and
colleagues [11], on the understanding
that these are still rough estimates
and more precise measurements are
needed, especially for the Old World
monkeys. The fossil species (genus
names in italics) were placed on this
tree by parsimony analyses of
relatively large morphological datasets
[4, 11, 14 and 15]. Known dates for
fossils [1, 2 and 21] are indicated by
the thicker lines; these lines are
attached to the tree as determined by
the parsimony analyses, although the
dates of the attachment points are our
best guesses. Species found in Africa
are in red and species found in Eurasia
are in black. The continental locations
of the ancestral lineages were inferred
by parsimony using the computer program
MacClade [30]. The intercontinental
dispersal events required, at a
minimum, to explain the distribution of
the living and fossil species are
indicated by the arrows. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VRT-4C4DVM4-D
&_user=4422&_handle=V-WA-A-W-WC-MsSAYVW-
UUW-U-AAVECYCCBC-AAVDAZZBBC-YCACYAZCV-WC
-U&_fmt=full&_coverDate=07%2F30%2F1998&_
rdoc=12&_orig=browse&_srch=%23toc%236243
%231998%23999919983%23494082!&_cdi=6243&
view=c&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlV
ersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=5558415c4ccd34
6c64e2e6be03c3865e
[2] Bill Munns stands next to his
model of a Gigantopithecus male, a
quadrupedal, fist-walking creature that
also could have stood erect, as bears
do. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.uiowa.edu/~bioanth/gi
ganto.html
bipedal primate.
Africa
[1] Fig. 1. Orrorin tugenensis nov.
gen. nov. sp. A: BAR 1002′00, left
femur, posterior view; B: BAR
1002′00, left femur, anterior view;
C: BAR 1000′00, right mandibular
fragment with M3, buccal view; D: BAR
1000′00, left mandibular fragment
with M2–3, lingual view; E: BAR
1000′00, left mandibular fragment
with M2–3, occlusal view; F: BAR
1900′00, right M3, occlusal view; G:
BAR 1390′00, right P4, distal view;
H: BAR 1001′00, upper I1, labial
view; I: BAR 1425′00, right
Image , lingual view; J: BAR
1004′00, right distal humerus,
posterior view; K: BAR 1003′00,
proximal left femur, anterior view; L:
BAR 349′00, manual proximal phalanx,
superior view; M: BAR 1426′00, left
M3, distal view; N: BAR 1215′00,
fragmentary right proximal femur,
posterior view. Scale bars = 1
cm.Orrorin tugenensis nov. gen. nov.
sp. A : BAR 1002′00, fémur gauche,
vue postérieure ; B : BAR 1002′00,
fémur gauche, vue antérieure ; C :
BAR 1000′00, fragment mandibulaire
droit avec M3, vue buccale ; D : BAR
1000′00, fragment mandibulaire gauche
avec M2–3, vue linguale ; E : BAR
1000′00, fragment mandibulaire gauche
avec M2–3, vue occlusale ; F : BAR
1900′00, M3 droite, vue occlusale ; G
: BAR 1390′00, P4 droite, vue distale
; H : BAR 1001′00, I1, vue labiale ;
I : BAR 1425′00, Image droite, vue
linguale ; J : BAR 1004′00, humérus
distal droit, vue postérieure ; K :
BAR 1003′00, fémur proximal gauche,
vue antérieure ; L : BAR 349′00,
phalange proximale de la main, vue
supérieure ; M : BAR 1426′00, M3
gauche, vue distale ; N : BAR
1215′00, fémur proximal
fragmentaire, vue postérieure. Chaque
barre équivaut à 1 cm. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/cac
he/MiamiImageURL/B6VJ3-42FS9XV-9-1/0?wch
p=dGLzVlz-zSkzS
[2] Description Ardipithecus
ramidus specimen, nicknamed
?Ardi?. After Gen Suwa, Berhane
Asfaw, Reiko T. Kono, Daisuke Kubo, C.
Owen Lovejoy, Tim D. White (2009):
''The Ardipithecus ramidus Skull and
Its Implications for Hominid Origins.''
Science, 2 October 2009: Vol. 326. no.
5949, pp. 68e1-68e7, Fig. 2 Date
14 November 2009, 16:50 Source
Zanclean skull Uploaded by
FunkMonk Author T. Michael
Keesey Permission (Reusing this file)
CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e1/Ardi.jpg
(x-STrA-lO-PitiKuS}.
[1] Australopithecus squinted at the
blue African sky. He had never seen a
star in broad daylight before, but he
could see one today. White. Piercing.
Not as bright as the Sun, yet much more
than a full moon. Was it dangerous? He
stared for a long time, puzzled, but
nothing happened, and after a while he
strode across the savanna
unconcerned. Millions of years
later, we know better. ''That star
was a supernova, one of many that
exploded in our part of the galaxy
during the past 10 million years,''
says astronomer Mark Hurwitz of the
University of
California-Berkeley. Right: Human
ancestors, unconcerned by odd lights in
the daytime sky. This image is based on
a painting featured in The
Economist. PD
source: http://science.nasa.gov/headline
s/y2003/06jan_bubble.htm?list847478
[2] Image Source *
http://www.familie-rebmann.de/photo11.ht
m COPYRIGHTED CLAIMED FAIR USE
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Laetoliafar.jpg.jpg
{lITOlE}.
[1] In 1976 during a fossil hunt lead
by Mary Leakey at a site called Laetoli
in Tanzania a palaeontologist called
Andrew Hill happened to look down and
notice some unusual dents in the
hardened ash that formed a dry stream
bed. Looking more closely these dents
appeared to be mammal
footprints. COPYRIGHTED UK
source: http://www.liv.ac.uk/premog/imag
es/laetoli_1.jpg
[2] Laetoli Footprints COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.modernhumanorigins.ne
t/laetolifoot.html
SCIENCE
[1] a, The exterior surface of
DIK-55-2, and the location of each of
the surface marks. The rib is oriented
such that the rib head (broken off)
would be to the left. Dashed rule,
4 cm. b, Marks A1 and A2
(high-confidence stone-tool cut marks)
under low-power optical magnification;
the yellow rectangle demarcates c.
Scale bar, 5 mm. c, ESEM image
showing microstriations indicative of
cutting with a stone tool. Scale bar,
100 μm. d, Mark B (high-confidence
stone-tool-inflicted mark) under
low-power optical magnification,
indicative of a cutting and scraping
action or percussion; the yellow
rectangle demarcates e. Scale bar,
5 mm. e, ESEM image showing
microstriations indicative of stone
tool action. Scale bar, 500 μm.
b–e, The direction of the rib head is
indicated by the black arrows. See
Supplementary Information for the
details of mark C. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v466/n7308/images/nature09248-f2.2.
jpg
PuS}, a line of extinct early bipedal
hominids.
[1] Description Deutsch: plastische
wissenschaftliche Rekonstruktion eines
Paranthropus boisei English:
scientiffic reconstruction of a
Paranthropus boisei Date 25 March
2007 Source Photographed at
Westfälisches Museum für
Archäologie, Herne Author
Photographed by
User:Lillyundfreya Permission (Reusing
this file) own work GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6c/Paranthropus_boisei.J
PG
[2] Skull of Paranthropus
boisei. From Smithsonian Institute
website. COPYRIGHTED CLAIMED FAIR USE
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Zinj3.jpg
[1] Figure 3 from: Semaw, S. et al.
2.5-million-year-old stone tools from
Gona, Ethiopia. Nature 385, 333–336
(1997)
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
385/n6614/abs/385333a0.html COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v385/n6614/abs/385333a0.html
[2] Early man lived on elephant meat,
so much they died out in the Middle
East 400,000 years ago Submitted by
Anonymous on Wed Dec 14 2011 17:23:00
GMT-0800 (Pacific Standard Time) -
Source: dailymail.co.uk Docile,
lumbering elephants were so perfect for
Homo erectus, that they provided up to
60 per cent of their diet - until
constant hunting wiped out elephants in
the Middle East. The disappearance
of elephants helped kill off Homo
erectus, and paved the way for Homo
sapiens - modern humans - to take
over. Findings from the University
of Tel Aviv reveal how important the
huge animals were to the diet of early
humans - researchers that elephants
provided 60 per cent of the meat eaten
by Homo erectus. UNKNOWN
source: http://i4.asntown.net/Mastodon-t
vfm.jpg
epoch, start of Holocene epoch. This
is the start of the Mesolithic part of
the Stone Age.
(earliest member of the genus "Homo").
This is when the human brain begins to
get bigger.
[1] KNM ER 1813 Homo habilis This
image is from the website of the
Smithsonian Institution [1] and may be
copyrighted. The Smithsonian
Institution explicitly considers the
use of its content for non-commercial
educational purposes to qualify as fair
use under United States copyright law,
if: 1. The author and source of the
content is clearly cited. 2. Any
additional copyright information about
the photograph from the Smithsonian
Institution website is included. 3.
None of the content is modified or
altered.
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:KNM_ER_1813.jpg
[2] red= Homo rudolfensis black=Homo
habilis COPYRIGHTED
source: http://sesha.net/eden/Eerste_men
sen.asp
[1] From: Richard Dawkins, ''The
Ancestor's Tale'', (Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004),
p106. COPYRIGHTED
source: Richard Dawkins, "The
Ancestor's Tale", (Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2004), p106.
[2] Gregoire: 62-year-old
chimpanzee Description English:
Chimpanzee named ''Gregoire'' born in
1944 (Jane Goodall sanctuary of
Tchimpounga in Congo Brazzaville) -
Picture taken the 9th of December
2006 Français : Chimpanzé nommé
''Grégoire'' né en 1944 (sanctuaire
Jane Goodall de Tchimpounga au Congo
Brazzaville) - Photo prise le 9
décembre 2006 Date 9 December
2006 Source Own work Author
Delphine
Bruyère Permission (Reusing this
file) Attribution : Delphine
Bruyere GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/ba/2006-12-09_Chimpanzee
_Gregoire_D_Bruyere.JPG
(65-1.8 mybn), and start of the
Quaternary {KWoTRnARE or KWoTRNRE} (1.8
mybn-now) Period.
evolves in Africa.
[1] Homo ergaster. Capacité
crânienne de 800 à 950
cm3 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://ma.prehistoire.free.fr/er
gaster.htm
[2] Turkana Boy COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.anthropology.at/virta
nth/evo_links/turkana%20boy.jpg
from Africa.
[1] G. Philip Rightmire, ''The
Dispersal of Homo erectus from Africa
and the Emergence of More Modern
Humans'', Journal of Anthropological
Research, Vol. 47, No. 2, A Quarter
Century of Paleoanthropology: Views
from the U.S.A. (Summer, 1991), pp.
177-191 Published by: University of
New Mexico Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/3630324
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3630
324
[2] All statistically significant
inferences in Tables 1 and 2 are
incorporated into this single model.
Major expansions of human populations
are indicated by red arrows. Genetic
descent is indicated by vertical lines,
and gene flow by diagonal lines. The
timing of inferences lacking resolution
at the 5% level and/or not validated by
more than one locus are indicated by
question marks. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v416/n6876/images/416045a-f1.2.jpg
Earliest evidence of use of fire,
burned bones from Swartkrans cave in
South Africa.
Africa
[1] Description English: A fire lit
using twigs and pine cones. Date
2008-03-27 (original upload
date) (Original text : 10:58, 27 March
2008 (UTC)) Source Transferred
from en.wikipedia (Original text :
http://waxingnonsensical.blogspot.com)
Author Original uploader was
Emeldil at en.wikipedia (Original text
: Pavan Srinath) Permission (Reusing
this file) CC-BY-SA-3.0. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Campfire_Pineco
ne.png/450px-Campfire_Pinecone.png
[2] Swartkrans Caves For any
picture requests, please email:
marketing@maropeng.co.za All photos
should be credited (© Maropeng),
unless otherwise stated in the caption.
UNKNOWN
source: http://maropeng.flowcommunicatio
.netdna-cdn.com/images/sized/images/medi
agallery/IMG_7223-600x450.JPG
hair, except head hair, facial hair,
airpit, chest and groin areas.
[1] escription English: A diorama in
National Museum of Indonesia, Jakarta,
depicting the life size model of stone
equipped hunter, a Homo erectus family
living in Sangiran about 900,000 years
ago. Bahasa Indonesia: Sebuah diorama
di Museum Nasional Indonesia di Jakarta
menampilkan adegan pemburu dengan
alat-alat batu, sebuah keluarga Homo
erectus yang hidup di Sangiran sekitar
900.000 tahun yang lalu. Date 24
August 2010 Source Own
work Author Gunkarta Gunawan
Kartapranata CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Sangiran_Homo_e
rectus_Diorama.jpg/1280px-Sangiran_Homo_
erectus_Diorama.jpg
tooth) in Western Europe.
[1] This picture released by Fundacion
Atapeurca shows a human tooth found in
the Atapuerca Sierra, near Burgos.
Spanish researchers on Friday said they
had unearthed a human tooth more than
one million years old, which they
estimated to be the oldest human fossil
remain ever discovered in western
Europe.(AFP/FA-HO) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://news.yahoo.com/photo/0706
29/photos_od_afp/815788affc9d457a9223e39
1c7eea36a;_ylt=AsmNyfUR9BdumtPpp6IQZZPQO
rgF
[1] Homo erectus, artwork C010/4389
Rights Managed Credit: JOSE ANTONIO
PEÑAS/SCIENCE PHOTO
LIBRARY Caption: Homo erectus.
Computer artwork of a Homo erectus man
standing in a prehistoric landscape.
Homo erectus is the most widespread and
longest-surviving of all the fossil
hominids. Its geographical spread
included north and east Africa, Europe,
Indonesia and China, where it lived
between 1 and 2 million years
ago. Release details: Model and
property releases are not available
UNKNOWN
source: http://www.sciencephoto.com/imag
e/417426/large/C0104389-Homo_erectus,_ar
twork-SPL.jpg
[2] Flint artefacts include
hard-hammer flakes, notches, retouched
flakes and cores (a–c, hard-hammer
flake; d, e, multiple notch; f,
hard-hammer flake; g, h, hard-hammer
flake, showing pronounced point of
percussion on plain butt).
Supplementary Information includes
micro-CT volume rendering of artefacts
(still example shown as a) with
three-dimensional animations (see
Supplementary Movies 1–10). i, Cone
of Pinus cf. sylvestris. j, Upper
second molar of Mammuthus cf.
meridionalis. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nature.com/nature/journal
/v466/n7303/images/nature09117-f2.2.jpg
controlled use of fire.
[1] Fig. 2. Cross section of burned
Olea europaea subsp. oleaster (wild
olive) specimen. Wood is diffuse
porous; vessels are solitary and in
short radial multiples. Bar, 0.5
mm COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/co
ntent/full/304/5671/725/FIG2
[2] Fig. 3. Burned grain of Aegilops
cf. geniculata: dorsal view of a basal
fragment (this grain is also shown in
fig. S2). Parts of husk and embryo are
clearly seen. Bar, 1 mm. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/co
ntent/full/304/5671/725/FIG3
[1] Figure 3a from: Thieme, Hartmut,
‘Lower Palaeolithic Hunting Spears
from Germany’, Nature, 385 (1997),
807-810
v385/n6619/abs/385807a0.html {Thieme_19
970227.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v385/n6619/abs/385807a0.html
[2] The first Europeans - one million
years ago A few
crucial digs have given us a glimpse of
the everyday life of Homo
heidelbergensis. This early human was
developing a complex mind - once this
boundary had been reached, there was no
turning back. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.bbc.co.uk/sn/prehisto
ric_life/human/human_evolution/images/hu
man_evolution_article_big4.jpg
Africa.
[1] Figure from: Day, M. H. ''Omo
human skeletal remains.'' Nature 222,
1135–1138 (1969)
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
222/n5199/pdf/2221135a0.pdf COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v222/n5199/pdf/2221135a0.pdf
[2] Figure 1 from: Tim D. White,
Berhane Asfaw, David DeGusta, Henry
Gilbert, Gary D. Richards, Gen Suwa &
F. Clark Howell, ''Pleistocene Homo
sapiens from Middle Awash, Ethiopia'',
Nature 423, 742-747 (12 June
2003) http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v423/n6941/full/nature01669.html CO
PYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v423/n6941/images/nature01669-f1.2.
jpg
sounds begins to develop. All words are
single syllable. Vowel sounds (U, o, E)
may be in use.
This is the beginning of the transition
from the verbal language of chimps and
monkeys, that will result in the
"staccato" (short sound duration)
language humans use now.
The majority of the 30 plus basic
sounds in human language (U, o, K, S,
etc.) were probably learned before
humans leave Africa.
[1] EARLY HUMANS SETTLED IN BRITAIN
800,000 YEARS AGO July 7, 2010 --
During the harsh winters, early humans
almost certainly relied on hunting
animals, as edible plants would have
been in very short supply, the study
says. UNKNOWN
source: http://news.discovery.com/archae
ology/2010/07/07/early-humans-zoom.jpg
[2] Phonetic Alphabet Symbols used by
Ted Huntington PD
source: http://tedhuntington.com/fonikal
f.jpg
G, K, P and T are in use.
use (the sounds S, Z, s, H, F, V).
use.
Europe and Western Asia.
The oldest Neanderthal fossil is from
Croatia.
[1] Description Deutsch:
Rekonstruierter Neandertaler im
Neanderthal-Museum Date 2007 Source
Own
work Author Ökologix Permission
(Reusing this file) See below. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Neandertaler-im
-Museum.jpg/1024px-Neandertaler-im-Museu
m.jpg
[2] Description English: Homo
neanderthalensis. Skull discovered in
1908 at La Chapelle-aux-Saints
(France). Date October
2005 Source Own
work Author Luna04 GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e0/Homo_sapiens_neandert
halensis.jpg
(120,000-20,000 YBN), which connects a
land bridge between Asia and America.
[98000 BC]
The explanation that many phenomena in
the universe are controlled by objects
with human and animal bodies that have
supernatural powers is one of the
earliest theories that tries to explain
how the universe works.
[1] The following is taken from James
Shreeve's book The Neandertal Enigma:
solving the mystery of modern human
origins (William Morrow and Company,
New York, 1995.) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.mesacc.edu/dept/d10/a
sb/origins/hominid_journey/pictures/buri
al.jpeg
[2] Figure 1 from: Tim D. White,
Berhane Asfaw, David DeGusta, Henry
Gilbert, Gary D. Richards, Gen Suwa &
F. Clark Howell, ''Pleistocene Homo
sapiens from Middle Awash, Ethiopia'',
Nature 423, 742-747 (12 June
2003) http://www.nature.com/nature/jour
nal/v423/n6941/full/nature01669.html CO
PYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v423/n6941/images/nature01669-f1.2.
jpg
[98000 BC]
Neaderthals. Human skeletal remains
stained with red ochre (verify) were
discovered in the Skhul cave at Qafzeh,
Israel. A variety of grave goods were
present at the site, including the
mandible of a wild boar in the arms of
one of the skeletons.
Israel
[1] [t Note that this may not be the
actual 100,000 year burial.] This is a
burial site of a Homo sapiens
neaderthalensis young adult male who
lived about 50,000 years ago. The
burial site was found in the Kebara
cave in Israel. UKNOWN
source: http://www.mitchellteachers.net/
WorldHistory/MrMEarlyHumansProject/Trans
parencies/NeanderthalensisTrans.jpg
[2] Description Deutsch:
Rekonstruierter Neandertaler im
Neanderthal-Museum Date 2007 Source
Own
work Author Ökologix Permission
(Reusing this file) See below. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Neandertaler-im
-Museum.jpg/1024px-Neandertaler-im-Museu
m.jpg
[93000 BC]
into Eurasia. This is the beginning of
differences in race within the human
species.
It is not clear if this is the primary
dispersal. Some people think the main
sapiens dispersal did not happen until
45,000 ybn..
This is also the last common ancestor
of native African and non-African
humans and the beginning of racial
differences.
[1] The northern route (along the
Danube) is represented by the 'classic'
Aurignacian technologies, while the
southern (Mediterranean) route is
represented by the 'proto-Aurignacian'
bladelet technologies (Fig. 3)-with
their inferred origins in the preceding
early Upper Palaeolithic technologies
in the Near East and southeastern
Europe. Dates (in thousands of years
bp) indicate the earliest radiocarbon
dates for these technologies in
different areas, expressed in thousands
of radiocarbon years before present
(bp). (These are likely to
underestimate the true (calendar) ages
of the sites by between 2,000 and 4,000
yr; see ref. 32). Dashed lines indicate
uncertain routes. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v432/n7016/fig_tab/nature03103_F1.h
tml
[2] The figure shows the geographical
and temporal distribution of hominid
populations, based on fossil finds,
using different taxonomic schemes. The
new finds from Herto4, 5 (H) represent
early Homo sapiens. a, This reflects
the view that both Neanderthals and
modern humans derived from a widespread
ancestral species called H.
heidelbergensis2. b, However, evidence
is growing that Neanderthal features
have deep roots in Europe2, 8, so H.
neanderthalensis might extend back over
400,000 years. The roots of H. sapiens
might be similarly deep in Africa, but
this figure represents the alternative
view that the ancestor was a separate
African species called H. rhodesiensis.
Different views of early human
evolution are also shown. Some workers
prefer to lump the earlier records
together and recognize only one
widespread species, H. erectus2 (shown
in a). Others recognize several
species, with H. ergaster and H.
antecessor (or H. mauritanicus) in the
West, and H. erectus only in the Far
East8 (shown in b). Adapted with
permission from refs 8, 11. 8.
Hublin, J.-J in Human Roots: Africa
and Asia in the Middle Pleistocene (eds
Barham, L. & Robson-Brown, K.) 99-121
(Western Academic & Specialist Press,
Bristol, 2001). 11. Rightmire, G. P.
in Human Roots: Africa and Asia in the
Middle Pleistocene (eds Barham, L. &
Robson-Brown, K.) 123-133 (Western
Academic & Specialist Press, Bristol,
2001). COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v423/n6941/fig_tab/423692a_F1.html
[90000 BC]
Africa, in Israel.
[1] Figure 2: Three-quarter view of the
Mousterian cranium Qafzeh 9 from Jebel
Qafzeh in Israel, about 92,000 years
old. Photo: Tsila
Sagiv/IDAM. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.metmuseum.org/special
/Genesis/tattersall_lecture.asp?printFla
g=1&refPage=1
[2] Qafzeh Cave COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.hf.uio.no/iakh/forskn
ing/sarc/iakh/lithic/AmudNet/Asites2.htm
l
[51300 BC]
Homo Erectus fossil in Southeast Asia
(Java).
This shows that Homo erectus lived at
the same time as Homo sapiens.
[1] homo erectus cranium COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/a/ad/Ng6f.jpg
[44000 BC]
Sapiens from Southeast Asia reach
Australia by water ship.
Earliest sapians fossils Australia,
"Mungo man".
[1] Palmer, et al, ''Prehistoric
Life'', 2009, p470-471. COPYRIGHTED
source: Palmer, et al, "Prehistoric
Life", 2009, p470-471.
[2] World map of human migrations,
with the North Pole at center. Africa,
harboring the start of the migration,
is at the top left and South America at
the far right. Migration patterns are
based on studies of mitochondrial
(matrilinear) DNA. Numbers represent
thousand years before present. The
blue line represents area covered in
ice or tundra during the last great ice
age. The letters are the mitochondrial
DNA haplogroups (pure motherly
lineages); Haplogroups can be used to
define genetic populations and are
often geographically oriented. For
example, the following are common
divisions for mtDNA
haplogroups: African: L, L1, L2,
L3 Near Eastern: J, N Southern
European: J, K General European: H,
V Northern European: T, U, X Asian:
A, B, C, D, E, F, G (note: M is
composed of C, D, E, and G) Native
American: A, B, C, D, and sometimes
X [edit]Data
derivation Image:Northern icesheet
hg.png shows the region that was
covered by ice or tundra in the last
ice age All migration data based on
mitomap Geographic data from
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Last_
glacial_vegetation_map.png and adding
the following data
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Ice_A
ge_Temperature.png we get this
interesting result
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Human
-migration-temperature.jpg GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/37/Map-of-human-migratio
ns.jpg
[41000 BC]
in Swaziland, Africa.
[01/01/38800 BC]
Cave, Spain|Southern France
[1] Drawings of horses from Chauvet
Cave GNU
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/336/6087/F5.large.jpg
[2] Fig 3 from: Pike, A. W. G. et al.
“U-Series Dating of Paleolithic Art
in 11 Caves in Spain.” Science
336.6087 (2012): 1409 –1413.
Print. http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/336/6087/1409.abstract A time line
of the cave art dated. A single arrow
represents a minimum age, but, where
two dates are indicated, both maximum
and minimum ages have been obtained.
The error bars for O-21 reflect the
variation resulting from the two
different methods of detrital
correction (11). Larger versions of
these images showing sample locations
are available in the supplementary
materials, figs. S2 to
S12. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Chauvethorses.jpg
[38000 BC]
Europe.
[1] Front view of Cro-magnon 1
fossil COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/3/36/Cromagf.jpg
[38000 BC]
[1] Figure from: Sophie A. de Beaune
and Randall White, ''Ice Age Lamps'',
Scientific American, March
1993. http://halshs.archives-ouvertes.f
r/docs/00/42/17/69/PDF/Sc.Amer.1993.pdf
source: http://halshs.archives-ouvertes.
fr/docs/00/42/17/69/PDF/Sc.Amer.1993.pdf
[38000 BC]
flute, made from the wing bone of a
vulture.
[1] Prehistorian historian Nicholas
Conard presents the bone flute from
Hohle Fels to journalists COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.google.com/hostednews
/afp/media/ALeqM5hlF6Vh9FxCmW4OYCeiBOJqR
J3VgA?size=l
[2] Conard et al.1 have discovered the
oldest known flute, at Hohle Fels Cave
in Germany. The flute is made from bird
bone, and dates from the early
Aurignacian, 40,000 years ago. H.
JENSEN/UNIV. TÜBINGEN COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v460/n7256/images/460695a-f1.2.jpg
[37000 BC]
China
[1] Fig. 1. Anterolateral oblique
view of the Tianyuan 1 mandible (lower
left), medial view of the right corpus
and ramus (upper left), and occlusal
view of the dentition and alveoli
(upper right). Views are not to the
same scale. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.pnas.org/content/104/
16/6573/F1.large.jpg
[36000 BC]
in Americas, from Orogrande cave, in
New Mexico.
[1] Pendejo Cave from approximately
north. Several human figures near the
mouth give the scale. A. H. Harris
photo, 2 Feb 1991. COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://www.utep.edu/leb/paleo/si
te62.htm
[30000 BC]
[1] Fig. 1 (1 to 7) Fibers from
Dzudzuana, Georgia, unit D. 1, twisted
flax fibers; 2 to 4, flax fibers; and 5
to 7, unraveled flax fibers. (8 to 12)
Fibers from Dzudzuana, unit C. 8 and 9,
twisted flax fibers; 10 and 12, flax
fibers; and 11, dyed flax fibers.
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/325/5946/-CSCO-3h--1359/-CSCO-3h--F1.l
arge.jpg
[2] On a lump of fired clay from the
Dolní Věstonice / Pavlov area were
found the impressions of substances
from plant fibres. The whole process of
picking nettles, crushing the dried
stem, preparation of tow, spinning the
thread and then weaving was tested and
shown to be possible using tools of the
time by M. Bunatova. Urbanová (ca
1999) http://www.donsmaps.com/dolnivpot
tery.html Dexterity of the First
Weavers A decade ago, experts did
not dare to think about people living
in the last ice age making
fabric. However, on a lump of fired
clay from the Dolní Věstonice /
Pavlov area were found the impressions
of substances from plant fibres. The
whole process of picking nettles,
crushing the dried stem, preparation of
tow, spinning the thread and then
weaving was tested and shown to be
possible using tools of the time by M.
Bunatova. Urbanová (ca
1999) Source: Display, Dolní
Věstonice Museum From Buňatová
(1999) and Sosna (2000): Buňatová,
M., 1999: Textilní produkce v mladém
paleolitu, experiment pro
dokumentární film ''Úsvit géniů'',
in: AR LI, Praha, 104 - 111. Sosna,
D., 2000: Počátky textilnictví. PhD.
Dissertation, Department of
Anthropology, Masaryk University, Brno.
UNKNOWN
source: http://www.ancient-wisdom.co.uk/
Images/countries/Czech%20pics/dolnifabri
c.jpg
[29700 BC]
[1] Description Deutsch:
Europäischer Grauwolf (Canis
lupus) English: grey wolf Date
February 2009 Source Own
work (own photo) Author Gunnar
Ries Amphibol Permission (Reusing
this file) You must give the
original author credit. If you use my
pictures outside the wiki projects,
please let me know. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Grauwolf_P11302
75.jpg/1024px-Grauwolf_P1130275.jpg
[2] Description Español: Lobo en
el zoo de Kolmården (Suecia). Date
2010-12-23 18:10 (UTC) Source
Wolf_Kolmården.jpg Author
Wolf_Kolmården.jpg: Daniel
Mott from Stockholm, Sweden
derivative work:
Mariomassone Permission (Reusing
this file) See below. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5f/Kolm%C3%A5rden_Wolf.j
pg
[27000 BC]
Venus figurines.
[1] Description Věstonická
venuše na výstavě Lovci mamutů v
Národním muzeu v Praze Date 2.
9. 2007 Source che Author
che (Please credit as ''Petr
Novák, Wikipedia'' in case you use
this outside WMF projects.) guidance:
Danny B. Permission (Reusing this
file) As they reached the Summit,
he said: “Thou shall take this
Snapshot and use it according to the
Code of License, and let your people
flourish all around the world.” They
brought the Snapshot to their homes and
there was much rejoicing. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b8/Vestonicka_venuse_edi
t.jpg
[2] Description Deutsch: Venus von
Willendorf Date 1 January
2007 Source Own work Author
User:MatthiasKabel Own work,
attribution required (Multi-license
with GFDL and Creative Commons CC-BY
2.5) GNU Figure 2 from: O. Soffer,
J. M. Adovasio, D. C. Hyland, ''The
“Venus” Figurines: Textiles,
Basketry, Gender, and Status in the
Upper Paleolithic'', Current
Anthropology, Vol. 41, No. 4
(August/October 2000), pp.
511-537 URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/3173
81 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/50/Venus_von_Willendorf_
01.jpg
[26000 BC]
[1] Description English: View of
Gorham's Cave, a sea cave in the east
face of the Rock of Gibraltar,
Gibraltar. Date 3 July
2007 Source Own work Author
Gibmetal77 CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Gorham%27s_Cave
.jpg/800px-Gorham%27s_Cave.jpg
[24000 BC]
hardened by fire).
Republic
[1] On a lump of fired clay from the
Dolní Věstonice / Pavlov area were
found the impressions of substances
from plant fibres. The whole process of
picking nettles, crushing the dried
stem, preparation of tow, spinning the
thread and then weaving was tested and
shown to be possible using tools of the
time by M. Bunatova. Urbanová (ca
1999) http://www.donsmaps.com/dolnivpot
tery.html Dexterity of the First
Weavers A decade ago, experts did
not dare to think about people living
in the last ice age making
fabric. However, on a lump of fired
clay from the Dolní Věstonice /
Pavlov area were found the impressions
of substances from plant fibres. The
whole process of picking nettles,
crushing the dried stem, preparation of
tow, spinning the thread and then
weaving was tested and shown to be
possible using tools of the time by M.
Bunatova. Urbanová (ca
1999) Source: Display, Dolní
Věstonice Museum From Buňatová
(1999) and Sosna (2000): Buňatová,
M., 1999: Textilní produkce v mladém
paleolitu, experiment pro
dokumentární film ''Úsvit géniů'',
in: AR LI, Praha, 104 - 111. Sosna,
D., 2000: Počátky textilnictví. PhD.
Dissertation, Department of
Anthropology, Masaryk University, Brno.
UNKNOWN
source: http://www.ancient-wisdom.co.uk/
Images/countries/Czech%20pics/dolnifabri
c.jpg
[21000 BC]
stone wall.
Greece
[1] Picture: Remains of the stone wall.
From the Greek Ministry of Culture.
UNKNOWN
source: http://blogs.discovery.com/files
/wall.jpg
[18000 BC]
migration to the Americas now.
[18000 BC]
Σπήλαι_
9;ν
Φράγχθ_
1;) in the Peloponnese, is occupied by
paleolithic people. This cave will be
occupied until 3000 BCE.
Argolid, is a cave overlooking the
Argolic Gulf opposite the Greek village
of Koilada.
[17000 BC]
Lebanon, Israel, Iraq, Jordan, Saudi
Arabia)
[1] Description Česky:
Pšenice. Deutsch: Weizen. English:
Wheat. Español: Trigo. Français :
Blé. Magyar: Búza. Tiếng Việt:
Lúa mì. Date August
2005 Source Own work Author
User:Bluemoose GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Wheat_close-up.
JPG/800px-Wheat_close-up.JPG
[16000 BC]
Province, China
[1] Pottery Fu (Cooking Vessel)-Shaped
Vessel Paleolithic Age to Neolithic
Age 12000 years ago Diameter at mouth
32.5cm height 29.8cm Restored on the
basis of unearthed pottery pieces at
Yuchanyan, Dao County in 1995 It is by
far the earliest pottery discovered, a
cooking vessel. [t Note that there
are apparently fragments of 2 or more
pottery vessels, and they are redated
in the article to 18000ybn: Elisabetta
Boaretto, Xiaohong Wu, Jiarong Yuan,
Ofer Bar-Yosef, Vikki Chu, Yan Pan,
Kexin Liu, David Cohen, Tianlong Jiao,
Shuicheng Li, Haibin Gu, Paul Goldberg,
and Steve Weiner, ''Radiocarbon dating
of charcoal and bone collagen
associated with early pottery at
Yuchanyan Cave, Hunan Province, China
PNAS 2009 106 (24) 9595-9600;''
published ahead of print June 1, 2009,
doi:10.1073/pnas.0900539106
http://www.pnas.org/content/106/24/959
5.full?sid=4a6f1743-94c2-4be8-b046-575b4
f27ab46]
source: http://www.hnmuseum.com/hnmuseum
/eng/whatson/exhibition/images/kg/2.jpg
[15000 BC]
[1] Remains of the rope. Fragments of
the first piece of clay (at left the
remains of the rope, at right, its
mark). Images from: LEROI-GOURHAN,
A., Lascaux Inconnu (A. LEROIGOURHAN &
J. ALLAIN, eds.), Xlle Suppl. à Gallia
Préhistoire, CNRS: Paris, 1979,
p183. COPYRIGHTED
source: LEROI-GOURHAN, A., Lascaux
Inconnu (A. LEROIGOURHAN & J. ALLAIN,
eds.), Xlle Suppl. à Gallia
Préhistoire, CNRS: Paris, 1979, p183.
[2] Figure 142. - Fragments of the
second piece of clay. The remains of
the cord appear on both sides. Images
from: LEROI-GOURHAN, A., Lascaux
Inconnu (A. LEROIGOURHAN & J. ALLAIN,
eds.), Xlle Suppl. à Gallia
Préhistoire, CNRS: Paris, 1979,
p183. COPYRIGHTED
source: LEROI-GOURHAN, A., Lascaux
Inconnu (A. LEROIGOURHAN & J. ALLAIN,
eds.), Xlle Suppl. à Gallia
Préhistoire, CNRS: Paris, 1979, p183.
[12000 BC]
[1] The oldest known map in the world,
discovered by archeologists, is from
12,000 B.C. and was found in Mezhirich,
Ukraine.
source: http://www.infoukes.com/history/
images/inventions/figure02.gif
[11000 BC]
bones in America.
Santa Rosa Island, California,
USA
[1] Peñon Woman III see also a
different skull: Luzia Woman is the
name for the skeleton of a
(Paleo-Indian) woman found in a cave in
Brazil, South America. Some
archaeologists believe the young woman
may have been part of the first wave of
immigrants to South America. Nicknamed
Luzia (her name pays homage to the
famous African fossil ''Lucy'', who
lived 3.2 million years ago), the
11,500 year-old skeleton was found in
Lapa Vermelha, Brazil, in 1975 by
archaeologist Annette
Laming-Emperaire [1] The skull is
said to be 13,000 years
old COPYRIGHTED
source: http://news.bbc.co.uk/media/imag
es/38542000/jpg/_38542745_150concho1.jpg
[2] The bones were found 40 years ago
on an island off the coast of
California. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://edition.cnn.com/NATURE/99
06/08/ancient.woman/
[11000 BC]
Nevada, dates to now.
[1] The bones were found 40 years ago
on an island off the coast of
California. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://edition.cnn.com/NATURE/99
06/08/ancient.woman/
[2] Skull wars:' Facial reconstruction
of the 'Spirit Cave Man,' based on
bones found in Spirit Cave, Churchill
County, Nevada (David Barry--Courtesy
Nevada State Museum; facial
reconstruction by Sharon Long)
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.abotech.com/Articles/
firstamericans.htm
[9500 BC]
China
[1] Description English: Paddy in
West Bengal, India Date 18 October
2009 Source Own
work Author Amartyabag CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Paddy_West_Beng
al.jpg/1280px-Paddy_West_Bengal.jpg
[2] Description: Cambodia, Kratie: A
worker is removing the rice
seedlings. Capture date: August
2002 Photographer: Oliver Spalt
Published under CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/07/Rice_02.jpg
[9130 BC]
Neolithic people in Southwestern
Turkey. The oldest stone buildings are
located in Göbekli Tepe, and are
evidence that hunter gatherer people
built structures before learning
agriculture.
[1] Göbekli Tepe may hold first human
writings Prehistory specialist of
the German Archeological Institute in
Berlin announced the findings of a
South Eastern Turkish Excavation site
near Sanliurfa called Göbekli Tepe
(''Nabelberg'') . Klaus Schmidt claims
the 11 600 old stone markings of this
temple are the worlds earliest known
form of writing. ''The geometrical
forms and small animal reliefs are
surely more than just ornamentations.
Humans somewhat wanted to communicate
with future humans here '' he says in a
February 14, 2006 Berliner Morgenpost
article. Excavator Schmidt interprets
Goebekli Tepe as a center for a
complicated dead cult and adds, ''This
was monumental architecture, 6000 years
before the pyramids.'' The monoliths
were lower than the surrounding walls
indicating that the intention was not
architectural in erecting
them. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.lahana.org/blog/Gobek
litepe.htm
[2] None COPYRIGHTED
source: http://terraeantiqvae.blogia.com
/2006/061203-gobekli-tepe-turquia-.-en-b
usca-del-paraiso-de-adan-y-eva.php
[9000 BC]
Palestine
[1] An aerial view of Jericho showing
the ruins of Tell
es-Sultan Description Italiano:
veduta aerea dell'area archeologica di
Gerico Date 2008-03-05 (original
upload date) Source Transferred
from it.wikipedia Author Original
uploader was Fullo88 at
it.wikipedia PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f4/Tell_es-sultan.jpg
[2] Plastered skulls figures
from: Kathleen Kenyon, ''Excavations
at Jericho'', 1981,
vol5. {Kenyon_Excavations_At_Jericho_19
81.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: Kenyon_Excavations_At_Jericho_19
81.pdf
[9000 BC]
and rounded stone used to grind grain
into flour).
[1] (presumably the:) Quern stone used
for making flour 9,500–9,000
BC Abu Hureyra, Syria NONCOMMERCIAL
USE
source: http://www.britishmuseum.org/ima
ges/quern_l.jpg
[2] Setting where Quern stone was used
for making flour 9,500–9,000
BC Abu Hureyra, Syria NONCOMMERCIAL
USE
source: http://www.britishmuseum.org/ima
ges/quern_setting_l.jpg
[9000 BC]
killed for food.
Turkey (11,000 bp), and the Zagros
Mountains of Iran at Ganj Dareh
(10,000).
[1] Description Bezoar Ibex (Capra
aegagrus aegagrus) Deutsch:
Bezoarziege, fotografiert im Tierpark
Berlin Date January
2006 Source Uploaded first to de
wikipedia on 13:25, 19. Feb 2006 by Der
Irbis Author F. Spangenberg (Der
Irbis, own photo) GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f6/Bezoarziege.jpg
[2] Domestic goat kid, in field of
capeweed. Swifts Creek, Victoria,
September 2007 GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Domestic_goat_k
id_in_capeweed.jpg/1024px-Domestic_goat_
kid_in_capeweed.jpg
[9000 BC]
ถ้ำผีŬ
9;มน) is occupied by
Hoabinhian hunter gatherer people.
This cave is
occupied by the Hoabinhian people from
about 9000 until 5500 BCE.
Province, northwest Thailand
[8700 BC]
Oldest copper
(and metal) artifact.
This starts the "Copper
Age" (Chalcolithic).
[8500 BC]
meat and dung (for fuel).
Anatolia|(Middle East) Eastern
Mediterranean
[1] Ovis canadensis Information from
en: Subject: Rocky Mountain Bighorn
Sheep Camera: Canon D60 Lens: Canon
100--400mm IS Originally uploaded to
en: by
Sunborn Source http://pdphoto.org/Pict
ureDetail.php?mat=pdef&pg=8208 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3a/Ovis_canadensis_2.jpg
[2] Description Fotografía tomada
en Brunete, Madrid,
España. Date 30 March 2008,
10:24 Source Black sheep . Do u
also feel different? // la Oveja negra.
Tambien te sientes
diferente? Uploaded by
Petronas Author Jesus Solana from
Madrid, Spain CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Black_sheep-1.j
pg/1024px-Black_sheep-1.jpg
[8350 BC]
("New Stone Age") start to appear.
[8000 BC]
Island South East Asia|southeastern
Anatolia
[1] Description English: A baby Wild
Boar (Sus scrofa) in a wildlife park in
the Netherlands Français : Marcassin
(Sus scrofa) dans une réserve faunique
au Pays-Bas Date 12 May 2010,
15:10 Source Frisling Author S
ander van der Wel CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Sus_scrofa_pigl
et.jpg/1024px-Sus_scrofa_piglet.jpg
[2] Edited version of Image:Wild Boar
Habbitat 2.jpg slightly cropped with
artifacts
removed. [edit]Summary Description
Deutsch: Das Wildschwein (Sus scrofa)
gehört zur Familie der altweltlichen
oder echten Schweine (Suidae) aus der
Ordnung der Paarhufer. Hier zu sehen in
seinem natürlichen Umfeld: Eine
Suhle English: The Wild Boar (Sus
scrofa) is the wild ancestor of the
domestic pig. As shown in his natural
habitat. Español: El jabalí salvaje
(Sus scrofa), ancestro del cerdo
doméstico, en su hábitat
natural. Français : Sanglier (Sus
scrofa) dans son habitat naturel. Le
sanglier est l'ancêtre sauvage du
porc. Grünvalder forst, Bavière
(Allemagne). Cymraeg: Baedd gwyllt
(Sus scrofa), hynafiad y mochyn
dof. Italiano: Il cinghiale (Sus
scrofa), è la forma ancestrale del
maiale domestico, ritratto nel suo
habitat naturale. Nederlands: Wild
zwijn (Sus scrofa) neemt een
modderbad Norsk (bokmål):
Villsvin (Sus scrofa) i sitt naturlige
miljø Português: Um javali da
espécie Sus scrofa, ancestral selvagem
do porco doméstico. Русский:
Кабан (Sus scrofa),
валяющийся в грязи;
предок домашней
свиньи. Svenska: Ett vildsvin
(Sus scrofa) i sin naturliga
miljö. Date 2007-05-22 Source O
wn work Author Richard Bartz,
Munich Makro Freak CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Wild_Boar_Habbi
tat_3.jpg/1024px-Wild_Boar_Habbitat_3.jp
g
[8000 BC]
[1] Stellmoor bows UNKNOWN
source: http://img.photobucket.com/album
s/v692/Rodsbucket/Primitive%20Bows/paste
dGraphic5.jpg
[8000 BC]
geometrical shapes are used for
counting in Sumer.
Sumer (modern Iraq)|Babylonia|Syria,
Sumer and Highland Iran
[1] Pre-literate counting and
accounting MS 5067/1-8 NEOLITHIC
PLAIN COUNTING TOKENS POSSIBLY
REPRESENTING 1 MEASURE OF GRAIN, 1
ANIMAL AND 1 MAN OR 1 DAY'S LABOUR,
RESPECTIVELY ms5067/1-8Counting tokens
in clay, Syria/Sumer/Highland Iran, ca.
8000-3500 BC, 3 spheres: diam. 1,6, 1,7
and 1,9 cm , (D.S.-B 2:1); 3 discs:
diam. 1,0x0,4 cm, 1,1x0,4 cm and
1,0x0,5 cm (D.S.-B 3:1); 2
tetrahedrons: sides 1,4 cm and 1,7 cm
(D.S.-B 5:1). Exhibited: The
Norwegian Intitute of Palaeography and
Historical Philology (PHI), Oslo,
13.10.2003- COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.earth-history.com/_im
ages/ms5067.jpg
[2] MS 4631 BULLA-ENVELOPE WITH 11
PLAIN AND COMPLEX TOKENS INSIDE,
REPRESENTING AN ACCOUNT OR AGREEMENT,
TENTATIVELY OF WAGES FOR 4 DAYS' WORK,
4 MEASURES OF METAL, 1 LARGE MEASURE OF
BARLEY AND 2 SMALL MEASURES OF SOME
OTHER COMMODITY ms4631Bulla in clay,
Syria/Sumer/Highland Iran, ca.
3700-3200 BC, 1 spherical
bulla-envelope (complete), diam. ca.
6,5 cm, cylinder seal impressions of a
row of men walking left; and of a
predator attacking a deer, inside a
complete set of plain and complex
tokens: 4 tetrahedrons 0,9x1,0 cm
(D.S.-B.5:1), 4 triangles with 2
incised lines 2,0x0,9 (D.S.-B.(:14), 1
sphere diam. 1,7 cm (D.S.-B.2:2), 1
cylinder with 1 grove 2,0x0,3 cm
(D.S.-B.4:13), 1 bent paraboloid
1,3xdiam. 0,5 cm
(D.S.-B.8:14). Context: MSS 4631-4646
and 5114-5127are from the same archive.
Total number of bulla-envelopes
worldwide is ca. 165 intact and 70
fragmentary. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.earth-history.com/_im
ages/ms4631.jpg
[8000 BC]
Jericho.
[1] Figure from: Kathleen Kenyon,
''Excavations at Jericho'', 1981,
vol5. {Kenyon_Excavations_At_Jericho_19
81.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: Kenyon_Excavations_At_Jericho_19
81.pdf
[2] Figure from: Kathleen Kenyon,
''Excavations at Jericho'', 1981,
vol5. {Kenyon_Excavations_At_Jericho_19
81.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: Kenyon_Excavations_At_Jericho_19
81.pdf
[8000 BC]
[1] The aurochs ( /ˈaʊrɒks/ or
/ˈɔrɒks/; also urus, Bos
primigenius), the ancestor of domestic
cattle, were a type of large wild
cattle which inhabited Europe, Asia and
North Africa, but is now extinct; it
survived in Europe until
1627. Description Español: Uro
(Bos taurus primigenius), agriotipo de
las vacas y toros domésticos Original
caption: ''Augsburger Abbildung des Urs
(echten Auerochsen).'' Translation
(partly): ''Augsburg depiction of an
Auerochs.'' This painting is a copy of
the original that was present at a
merchant in Augsburg in the 19th
century. The original probably dates
from the 16th century. It is not known
if the original as well the copy still
exist somewhere (Van Vuure,
2003). Size: 5.0 x 3.1 in² (12.8 x
7.8 cm²) Date Brehms Tierleben,
Small Edition
1927 Source http://animalpicturesar
chive.com/ArchOLD-6/1188058432.jpg Au
thor Unkown PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Egyptian_Domest
icated_Animals.jpg/1024px-Egyptian_Domes
ticated_Animals.jpg
[2] Description English:
Cows Date Source Own
work Author Route11 Permission
(Reusing this file) Own Work CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Ur-painting.jpg
/1024px-Ur-painting.jpg
[7300 BC]
(Nevali Cori, Turkey)
[1] Description Česky:
Pšenice. Deutsch: Weizen. English:
Wheat. Español: Trigo. Français :
Blé. Magyar: Búza. Tiếng Việt:
Lúa mì. Date August
2005 Source Own work Author
User:Bluemoose GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Wheat_close-up.
JPG/800px-Wheat_close-up.JPG
[7240 BC]
[1] Fig. 3. Close-up of two dark
brown squash seed (C. moschata)
fragments recovered from a buried house
floor at CA-09-27. from: Tom D.
Dillehay, Jack Rossen, Thomas C.
Andres, and David E. Williams,
''Preceramic Adoption of Peanut,
Squash, and Cotton in Northern Peru'',
Science 29 June 2007: 316 (5833),
1890-1893. http://www.sciencemag.org/co
ntent/316/5833/1890.abstract COPYRIGHTE
D
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/316/5833/1890/F3.large.jpg
[7000 BC]
[7000 BC]
city.
[1] Early farming village in Mehrgarh,
c. 7000 BCE, with houses built with mud
bricks. (Musée Guimet, Paris). The
image was downloaded from the website
of the Indus and Mehrgarh
archaeological mission, Musée Guimet,
by Fowler&fowler«Talk» 22:56, 6 March
2007 (UTC) COPYRIGHTED FAIRUSE
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Neolithic_mehrgarh.jpg
[2] A relief map of Pakistan showing
Mehrgarh This is an annotated version
of a relief map of Pakistan in the
public domain([1]). The map was
annotated by Fowler&fowler«Talk»
08:07, 7 March 2007 (UTC) and
rereleased to the public domain. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Mehrgarh_pakistan_rel96.JPG
[7000 BC]
Iraq is founded.
[1] This map has been uploaded by
Electionworld from en.wikipedia.org to
enable the Wikimedia Atlas of the World
. Original uploader to en.wikipedia.org
was John D. Croft, known as John D.
Croft at en.wikipedia.org.
Electionworld is not the creator of
this map. Licensing information is
below. Self made map and text GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Sumer1.jpg
[6600 BC]
in China.
Province
[1] This tortoise shell is over 8,000
years old and has inscribed symbols
similar to the Chinese character ''mu''
(meaning ''eye'') in oracle bone
inscriptions of the Shang Dynasty. This
may not be the evidence of the
existence of characters 8,000 years
ago, but one thing is for sure, that
the Chinese people had already begun to
express their thoughts through symbols
at that time. UNKNOWN
source: http://history.cultural-china.co
m/chinaWH/images/exbig_images/1439a64c77
7f51442934daf575c6bc7a.jpg
[2] First attempt at writing on a
tortoise shell. COPYRIGHTED but PD on
wiki
source: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/scien
ce/nature/2956925.stm
[6410 BC]
bones found in Washington State, dates
to now.
[1] t: might be newsweek
image COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.unl.edu/rhames/course
s/current/current2005.htm
[2] Kennewick reconstruction The face
of Kennewick Man, as reconstructed by
Jim Chatters and Thomas
McClelland. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/fir
st/kennewick.html
[6200 BC]
painted on a wall of the Catal Huyuk
settlement in south-central Anatolia
(now Turkey).
[1] City plan of Çatal Höyük. The
map is painted on a wall and measures
more than de 2,5 m long. Image courtesy
of Ali Turan in Turkey in maps
www.turkeyinmaps.com COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.infovis.net/printMag.
php?num=110&lang=2
[2] City plan of Çatal Höyük.
Recreation of the original plan, where
you can appreciates the structure of
the city. An erupting volcano also
appars. It's probably the Hasan Dag,
still visible from Çatal Höyük in
the present time. COPYRIGHTED
source: same
[6000 BC]
[1] De boot van Pesse (Drenthe).
C14-dateringen geven aan dat dit object
uit het mesolithicum dateert (ca. 8600
voor Chr.). De lengte bedraagt iets
minder dan 3 meter. foto: Drents
Museum grotere afbeelding UNKNOWN
source: http://www.archeoforum.nl/images
/webboot.jpg
[2] Afb. 1 Mark Jan Dielemans
probeert een kopie van de kano van
Pesse uit in een ven bij
recreatiecentrum Witterzomer in
Assen foto: GPD grotere
afbeeldin UNKNOWN
source: http://www.archeoforum.nl/images
/Pesse10afb1.jpg
[6000 BC]
A sickle has a semicircular blade and
is used for cutting grain or tall
grass.
[1] [t NOTE not- earliest sickle] [1]
Faucille néolithique danoise en silex
1/Danish Neolithic flint
sickle flint 105 UNKNOWN
source: http://idata.over-blog.com/4/25/
41/68/danois/flint-130.jpg
[2] [t NOTE not- earliest sickle]
Ancient Stone Age Neolithic Flint
Sickle Denmark UNKNOWN
source: http://www.artancient.com/ebay/2
50310/020412JSA010.jpg
[6000 BC]
[6000 BC]
[1] Hordeum-barley -
http://www.ars.usda.gov/is/graphics/ph
otos/k5141-4.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/55/Hordeum-barley.jpg
[6000 BC]
[1] Pearl millet developed by USDA-ARS
and grown at Tifton, GA.
Non-copyrightable image courtesy of the
USDA-ARS. (From the English
Wikipedia) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f0/Grain_millet%2C_early
_grain_fill%2C_Tifton%2C_7-3-02.jpg
[6000 BC]
KeToL HoYqK} in modern Turkey.
[1] Excavations at the South Area of
Çatal Höyük Çatal Höyük,
Turkey GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:CatalHoyukSouthArea.JPG
[2] On-site restoration of a typical
Çatal Höyük interior Inside a model
of a neolithic house at Catal
Hüyük GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Catal_H%C3%BCy%C3%BCk_Restauration_B.
JPG
[6000 BC]
wide geographic distribution in
archaeological excavations from
Neolithic times onward; one excavated
in Moravia is dated to 6000 bce.
[1] Curt Sachs, ''The History of
Musical Instruments'', 1940, p81. PD
source: Curt Sachs, "The History of
Musical Instruments", 1940, p81.
[5300 BC]
southern Iraq is founded.
[1] This map has been uploaded by
Electionworld from en.wikipedia.org to
enable the Wikimedia Atlas of the World
. Original uploader to en.wikipedia.org
was John D. Croft, known as John D.
Croft at en.wikipedia.org.
Electionworld is not the creator of
this map. Licensing information is
below. Self made map and text GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Sumer1.jpg
[5000 BC]
Iraq)
[5000 BC]
[5000 BC]
(copper).
[1] Copper slag from Belovode (sample
No. 21). Figure 3 from: Miljana
Radivojević, Thilo Rehren, Ernst
Pernicka, Dušan Šljivar, Michael
Brauns, Dušan Borić, On the origins
of extractive metallurgy: new evidence
from Europe, Journal of Archaeological
Science, Volume 37, Issue 11, November
2010, Pages 2775-2787, ISSN 0305-4403,
10.1016/j.jas.2010.06.012. (http://www.
sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0
305440310001986) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence/article/pii/S0305440310001986
[5000 BC]
[5000 BC]
[1] Bitumin remains from older Kuwaiti
boat show rope impressions. Lawler,
Andrew (June 7, 2002). ''Report of
Oldest Boat Hints at Early Trade
Routes''. Science (AAAS) 296 (5574):
1791–1792.
doi:10.1126/science.296.5574.1791. PMID
12052936.
http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/
summary/296/5574/1791
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/3076918
COPYRIGHTED
source: Lawler, Andrew (June 7, 2002).
"Report of Oldest Boat Hints at Early
Trade Routes". Science (AAAS) 296
(5574): 1791–1792.
doi:10.1126/science.296.5574.1791. PMID
12052936.
http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/
summary/296/5574/1791
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/3076918
[2] Description Totora reed fishing
boats on the beach at Huanchaco,
Peru Date 13 October 2006,
15:26 Source Totora reed fishing
boats on the beach at Huanchaco,
Peru Author Roy & Danielle CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Peruvian_fishin
g_boats.jpg/768px-Peruvian_fishing_boats
.jpg
[5000 BC]
[1] Excavated walls at the site of
Uruk. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd
/uruk/hd_uruk.htm
[2] Kish (Sumer) localisation GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Meso2mil.JPG
[4900 BC]
[1] Scale 1/20 model of a Bronze Age
reed boat, as proposed by Tom Vosmer,
Model of a Third Millennium BC Reed
Boat Image from: Connan, Jacques et
al. “A comparative geochemical study
of bituminous boat remains from H3,
As-Sabiyah (Kuwait), and RJ-2, Ra’s
al-Jinz (Oman).” Arabian Archaeology
and Epigraphy 16.1 (2005):
21-66. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/d
oi/10.1111/j.1600-0471.2005.00041.x/abst
ract {Connan_Norman_200505xx.pdf} COPY
RIGHTED
source: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/d
oi/10.1111/j.1600-0471.2005.00041.x/abst
ract
[01/01/4500 BC]
the Old European script, or Vinča
script, may represent a written
language.
(Serbia)
[1] Drawing of a clay vessel unearthed
near Vinca. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Vinca_vessel.png
[2] Amulets from the Vinca culture in
Tartania Balkan ca 4500 BCE
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://freepages.history.rootswe
b.com/~catshaman/121Indus/0iconogrph.htm
[4500 BC]
monument, an assembly of huge stones in
Nabta, Egypt.
[1] A stone circle at Nabta Playa in
Egypt's Western Desert is thought to
act as a calendar and was constructed
around 7000 BC [t error is 6,500 years
old so 4,500 BCE] COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.touregypt.net/feature
stories/prehistory.htm
[2] None COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://hej3.as.utexas.edu/~www/w
heel/africa/blueprint.htm
[4250 BC]
[1] Description Deutsch:
Maispflanzen (Zea mays) English: Maize
(Zea mays) plant with ears, the baby
corn growing level தமிழ்:
இளங்கதிர்கள்,
நன்கு
வளர்நிலையில்
இருக்கிறது. Date
2004 Source Own work Author
burgkirsch CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/32/Maispflanze.jpg
[4000 BC]
[4000 BC]
[4000 BC]
house.
[1] The Royal Tombs (Cemetery) of Ur.
Courtesy Nathanm, Creative Commons. CC
source: http://popular-archaeology.com/u
pload/2697/urroyaltombs.jpg
[2] Pre-Historic Tell Uqair UNKNOWN
source: http://ancientneareast.tripod.co
m/IMAGES/Uqair.jpg
[3800 BC]
Mesopotamia.
This map, found near the town of
Harran, which dates to c. 3800 BCE,
clearly shows the northern part of
Mesopotamia, with the Euphrates and its
tributary the Wadi-Harran, the Zagros
Mountains in the east, and the Lebanon
or Anti-Lebanon in the west. The
mountains and rivers are clearly
marked, and circles stand for the
cities.
[1] Image of map from: Leo Bagrow,
''History of Cartography'', Second
Edition,
1985. {Bagrow_History_of_Cartography_19
85.pdf} PD
source: Leo Bagrow, "History of
Cartography", Second Edition,
1985. {Bagrow_History_of_Cartography_19
85.pdf}
[2] Redrawing with
interpretation UNKNOWN
source: http://www.henry-davis.com/MAPS/
Ancientimages/100E.JPEG
[3500 BC]
ground).
[1] [t determine source of
drawing] Apparently mesopotamian
drawing of animal pulled plow. UNKNOWN
source: http://ed101.bu.edu/StudentDoc/A
rchives/ED101fa06/jtobz87/pic-3-2plow-lg
.png
[2] Akkadian plough with seeder c2200
BCE Peter Roger Stuart Moorey,
''Ancient Mesopotamian Materials and
Industries: The Archaeological
Evidence'', 1999,
p2. http://books.google.com/books?id=P_
Ixuott4doC&pg=PA3 UNKNOWN
source: Peter Roger Stuart Moorey,
"Ancient Mesopotamian Materials and
Industries: The Archaeological
Evidence", 1999,
p2. http://books.google.com/books?id=P_
Ixuott4doC&pg=PA3
[3500 BC]
crops).
Mediterranean)
[1] Illustration 1. A shaduf was used
to raise water above the level of the
Nile. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.waterhistory.org/hist
ories/nile/shaduf.jpg
[2] This is a picture of how egyptians
could have used the Nile to plant their
crops. They are using an irrigation
method. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.amersol.edu.pe/class1
5/_15eescob/6th/humanities/images/nile_i
rrigation.jpg
[3500 BC]
transport.
[1] Artist Maler der Grabkammer
des Panehsi Title Deutsch:
Grabkammer des Panehsi, Priester,
Szene: Esel mit Bauern Date
Deutsch: um 1298-1235 v.
Chr. English: c. 1298-1235 BCE Medium
Deutsch: Wandbild Dimensions
Deutsch: 30 × 61 cm Current
location Deutsch: Grab des
Panehsi Deutsch:
Theben Source/Photographer The
Yorck Project: 10.000 Meisterwerke der
Malerei. DVD-ROM, 2002. ISBN
3936122202. Distributed by DIRECTMEDIA
Publishing
GmbH. http://mail.wikipedia.org/piperma
il/wikide-l/2005-April/012195.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Maler_der_Grabk
ammer_des_Panehsi_001.jpg/1024px-Maler_d
er_Grabkammer_des_Panehsi_001.jpg
[3500 BC]
of 30 days, plus 5 extra days).
[1] Egyptian Calendar UNKNOWN
source: http://analyzer.depaul.edu/paper
plate/2002%20vernal%20equinox/Egyptian_c
alendar_dark.jpg
[3500 BC]
[3500 BC]
pottery wheel.
wheel from Choga Mish, Iran)
[1] These pots, found at al`Ubaid type
site itself are typical of last phase
of Ubaid pottery found throughout much
of Mesopotamia, including Uruk. London:
British Museum. [t Note that the
first and tihrd match figures in
Woolley's 1982 book.] PD
source: http://www.hartford-hwp.com/imag
e_archive/ue/pottery03.jpg
[2] 14. Pottery jar of Jemdat Nasr
type. It was found in the al`Ain region
of the United Arab Emirates, which
attests to contacts between Mesopotamia
and Oman peninsula—an important
source of copper. Ca. 3000 BC. London:
British Museum. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.hartford-hwp.com/imag
e_archive/ue/pottery02.jpg
[3500 BC]
numbers. First stamp (or seal).
The first writing begins as numbers on
clay tablets.
Iran)
[1] MS 3007 NUMBERS 10 AND 5 +4 + 4
+ 4 + 5 + 3 ms3007MS on clay,
Syria/Sumer/Highland Iran, ca.
3500-3200 BC, 1 elliptical tablet,
6,7x4,4x1,9 cm, 2+1 compartments, 2 of
which with 3 columns of single numbers
as small circular
depressions. Commentary:Numerical or
counting tablets with their more
complex combination of decimal and
sexagesimal numbers are a further step
from the tallies with the simplest form
of counting in one-to-one
correspondence. They were used parallel
with the bulla-envelopes with tokens.
The commodity counted was not indicated
in the beginning, but was gradually
imbedded in the numbers system or with
a seal or a pictograph of the commodity
added, i. e. development into
ideonumerographical tablets, the
forerunners to pictographic tablets.
There are only about 260 numerical
tablets known. Most of them are found
in Iran. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.earth-history.com/_im
ages/ms3007.jpg
[2] MS 4647 NUMBERS 3+4, POSSIBLY
REPRESENTING 3 MEASURES OF BARLEY AND 4
MEASURES OF SOME OTHER COMMODITY, IN
SEXAGESIMAL NOTATION ms4647MS on clay,
Syria/Sumer/Highland Iran, ca.
3500-3200 BC, 1 tablet, 4,4x5,0x2,3 cm,
2 lines with 3 small circular
depressions and 4 short
wedges. Numerical or counting
tablets with their more complex
combination of decimal and sexagesimal
numbers are a further step from the
tallies with the simplest form of
counting in one-to-one correspondence.
They were used parallel with the
bulla-envelopes with tokens. The
commodity counted was not indicated in
the beginning, but was gradually
imbedded in the numbers system or with
a seal or a pictograph of the commodity
added, i. e. development into
ideonumerographical tablets, the
forerunners to pictographic tablets.
There are only about 260 numerical
tablets known. Most of them are found
in Iran. Exhibited: The Norwegian
Intitute of Palaeography and Historical
Philology (PHI), Oslo,
13.10.2003- COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.earth-history.com/_im
ages/ms4647.jpg
[3500 BC]
device.
[1] Stick in sand with shadow UNKNOWN
source: http://farm1.static.flickr.com/1
77/484077420_e01337d101.jpg
[2] Description English: Ancient
sundial from Marcianopolis, Museum of
Mosaicas, Devnya,
Bulgaria Български:
Слънчев часовник от
Марцианополис, Музей
на мозайките,
Девня Date 21 September
2010 Source Own work Author
Edal Anton Lefterov CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/ff/Sundial-from-Marciano
polis.jpg
[3490 BC]
[1] English: cotton plant, Texas, 1996,
after chemical haulm (topkilling
Chemical ; usually by the Monosodium
methyl arsenate used to quickly kill
the leaves that would interfere with
harvesting machines). This chemical is
a growing source of residual
contamination of soils by arsenic,
which is not degradable; Photo courtesy
of USDA Natural Resources Conservation
Service. http://photogallery.nrcs.usda.
gov/Index.asp This came from the
website PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/6/68/CottonPlant.JPG
/1024px-CottonPlant.JPG
[3400 BC]
[3310 BC]
Bronocice, Krakow, Poland
[1] Stuart and Piggott, ''The Earliest
Wheeled Transport'', 1983,
p40,62-63. COPYRIGHTED
source: Stuart and Piggott, "The
Earliest Wheeled Transport", 1983,
p40,62-63.
[2] According
to: http://www.britishmuseum.org/explor
e/highlights/highlight_objects/me/t/the_
standard_of_ur.aspx 2600-2400
BC According to:
http://sumerianshakespeare.com/687045.ht
ml this image is 4500 years old -
putting it at 2500bce - get more
evidence of age [1] Description
English: detail of the ''Standard of
Ur'', ca. 2500 BC. Date 2500
BC Source
http://www.alexandriaarchive.org/op
encontext/iraq_ghf/ur_standard/ur_standa
rd_8.jpg Author
Anonymous Permission (Reusing
this file) See below. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/7d/Ur_chariot.jpg
[3300 BC]
Now along with numbers on clay tablets
are symbols that represent the
commodity (such as cows, sheep, and
cereals). These symbols represent the
earliest record of what will become the
modern alphabet.
Training of scribes is an early
school.
These tablets contain a record of
objects owned or traded, and contain no
stories.
The symbol for ox ("aleph") will become
the letter "A", the symbol for house,
(/bitum/) will become "B".
[1] MS 4551 Account of grain products,
bread, beer, butter oil. Sumer 32nd
century COPYRIGHTED?
source: http://www.earth-history.com/_im
ages/ms4551.jpg
[2] MS2963 Account of male and female
slaves Sumer
c3300-3200BCE COPYRIGHTED?
source: http://www.earth-history.com/_im
ages/ms2963.jpg
[3200 BC]
[1] Description Cuneiform script
tablet from the Kirkor Minassian
collection in the Library of Congress.
From Year 6 in the reign from
Amar-Suena/Amar-Sin between 2041 and
2040 BC.
http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.amed/amcune.cf001
3 Date 2012-02-28 16:01 (UTC) Source
This file was derived from:
Cuneiform_script2.jpg Cuneiform
script2.jpg Author
Cuneiform_script2.jpg: derivative
work: Yjenith (talk) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/19/Cuneiform_script2.png
[3100 BC]
from Mesopotamia to Egypt is that,
around this time an Armenoid or Giza
race of humans enter Egypt and bring
writing to Egypt. Skeletal remains show
larger than average bones and skulls
than the native humans around this
time.
[3100 BC]
in pictures drawn in egypt, which
include winged griffins, serpent necked
felines, and pairs of entwined species.
A knife found at Gebel el Arak has a
handle with one side Mesopotamian style
ships, and the other side a human
standing over two lions dressed in
Mesopotamian clothes.
[3100 BC]
[3000 BC]
mixed with tin) melted, and casted.
[1] Tell Judaidah bronze
figurines These figurines of men and
women from Tell Judaidah, Turkey, are
the oldest examples of true bronze
(combination of copper and tin) known.
They date to about 3000 B.C. The male
figures were originally equipped as
warriors, and the women were dressed
with accessories of precious metal.
They are the forerunners of later
figurines of gods who were ''dressed''
in gold and silver. Recently, the ore
content of the figurines was tested at
the Advanced Photon Source at Argonne
National Laboratory. UNKNOWN
source: http://www-news.uchicago.edu/rel
eases/05/050112.oi-3.jpg
[2] Female Figurine Amuq Valley Tell
Judaidah Turkey Amuq G Early Bronze Age
I (3400-2750 BCE)
Bronze Photographed at the Oriental
Institute of the University of Chicago,
Chicago, Illinois. UNKNOWN
source: http://farm3.staticflickr.com/26
18/3859375883_ccc6b90ec4_b.jpg
[3000 BC]
Egypt.
[3000 BC]
Nile.
[3000 BC]
Medeterranean.
[3000 BC]
in Egypt.
[3000 BC]
welding.
[3000 BC]
Egpyt.
[3000 BC]
[3000 BC]
Gerrawi.
[3000 BC]
and bow drill in Egypt.
[3000 BC]
[3000 BC]
metal casting.
[3000 BC]
words.
Evidence of this is the sign /ti/, for
"arrow" that is now also defined as the
Sumarian word for "life" /til/ which
starts with the same sound.
The vast majority of Sumerian language
is made of one-syllable words. This
suggests that all earlier spoken
languages contained only
single-syllable words.
[1] Source:
http://pandora.cii.wwu.edu/vajda/ling201
/writingsystems/sumeriancuneiform.htm U
NKNOWN
source: http://www.omniglot.com/images/w
riting/sumerian_glyphs.jpg
[2] Pre-literate counting and
accounting MS 5067/1-8 NEOLITHIC
PLAIN COUNTING TOKENS POSSIBLY
REPRESENTING 1 MEASURE OF GRAIN, 1
ANIMAL AND 1 MAN OR 1 DAY'S LABOUR,
RESPECTIVELY ms5067/1-8Counting tokens
in clay, Syria/Sumer/Highland Iran, ca.
8000-3500 BC, 3 spheres: diam. 1,6, 1,7
and 1,9 cm , (D.S.-B 2:1); 3 discs:
diam. 1,0x0,4 cm, 1,1x0,4 cm and
1,0x0,5 cm (D.S.-B 3:1); 2
tetrahedrons: sides 1,4 cm and 1,7 cm
(D.S.-B 5:1). Exhibited: The
Norwegian Intitute of Palaeography and
Historical Philology (PHI), Oslo,
13.10.2003- COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.earth-history.com/_im
ages/ms5067.jpg
[3000 BC]
and harp).
[1] Bearded Harpists, detail from
Sumerian tablet in the Temple of Sin in
Khafage, Mesopotamia (presently Iraq) c
3000 BC. Reprinted by permission
from The Harp by Rajka
Dobronic-Mazzoni. Published by Graficki
Zavrod Hrvatske, OOUR, Izdavcka
djelatnost, Preobrazenska 4, Zagreb,
Croatia, 1989 PD
source: http://www.harpspectrum.org/time
line/images/mesopotamia_1.jpg
[2] Harp-player of Sumer, from a
plaque of Khafaje (After Heras, 1953,
p. 182). PD
source: http://www.hindunet.org/hindu_hi
story/sarasvati/html/HARPPL-1.jpg
[3000 BC]
The inclined plane is thought to be
older than any of the other basic
machines, and is based on the concept
that moving an object is easier when
pushed up a flatter slope.
[1] Description A free body
diagram of a mass on an inclined
plane Date 27 May 2007 Source
Own work Author Mets501 CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Free_body.svg/1
000px-Free_body.svg.png
[3000 BC]
The abacus is a bead and wire analog
counting and calculating computer which
appears around 3000 BC in Mesopotamia
as a sand-covered board in which marks
are made by finger or stick. The name
"abacus" derives from the (Sumerian?)
word for "dust". The traditional wire
and bead form occurs in Egypt around
500 BC.
[1] Suanpan (the number represented in
the picture is 6,302,715,408). [t Note
that each place represents a decimal
place, and a bead on top at the bar
indicates +5, a bead on bottom at the
bar +1.] English: Abacus Scanned and
uploaded by Malcolm Farmer (englische
Wikipedia) Source: Article for
''abacus'', 9th edition Encyclopedia
Britannica, volume 1 (1875) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/af/Abacus_6.png
[2980 BC]
BCE), the first scientist of history,
is credited with being the designer of
the "step pyramid", the earliest of the
Egyptian pyramids.
[1] Description English: The Pyramid
of Djoser in Saqqara, Egypt. Date
6 February 2010 Source Own
work Author Wknight94 talk GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Pyramid_of_Djos
er_2010.jpg/1280px-Pyramid_of_Djoser_201
0.jpg
[2800 BC]
the earliest recorded semitic language
is first seen in proper names recorded
on clay tablets in Sumer. This language
will eventually replace the non-semitic
Sumerian language but Sumerian will
last for another 1000 years before
going extinct in 1800 BCE. Bilingual
lexical lists with both Akkadian and
Sumerian are created around this time
and are the first dictionaries ever
created on earth. These will help later
people to understand Sumerian. The
Akkadian language has no written form
and so Akkadian speaking people adopt
the Sumerian script for their own
language and this accelerates the
process of phonetic abstraction. This
phonetic abstraction of Sumerian will
allow the development of cuneiform
which uses phonetic symbols, which are
direct ancestors of the modern letters
of the alphabet.
Akkadian words sound different
from Sumerian words and so Akkadian
speaking people may apply the Sumerian
phonetic symbols to represent Akkadian
words (or Akkadian speaking people may
have been the first to make Sumerian
symbols as phonetic letters). Akkadian
has two different forms for verbs
depending on tense and mode, and so
verbs cannot be expressed with a single
symbol as they can in Sumerian.
[2800 BC]
assembly occurs in Sumer. Gilgamesh,
the king of Erech (Uruk), Gilgamesh,
goes before an assembly of elders to
ask for permission to fight against the
city of Kish instead of being ruled by
Agga, the king of Kish. Gilgamesh
supports the idea of fighting against
Kish, and he goes before an assembly of
elders, who vote not to fight but
instead to submit to Kish in the
interest of peace, however a second
assembly, which consists of men with
weapons votes to fight against Kish.
Agga attacks Erech, and the text is not
yet fully understood, but somehow
Gilgamesh gains the friendship of Agga
and has the siege stopped without a
fight.
[2750 BC]
[1] [t Note that these are not the
oldest known saws, but more recent saws
from Minoa.] Figures from: Wells, H.
Bartlett, ''The Position of the Large
Bronze Saws of Minoan Crete in the
History of Tool Making'', Expedition,
16.4, 1974,
p2-8. http://www.penn.museum/expedition
-back-issues/114-volumes-11-20/560-exped
ition-volume-16-number-4-summer-1974.htm
l
source: http://www.penn.museum/expeditio
n-back-issues/114-volumes-11-20/560-expe
dition-volume-16-number-4-summer-1974.ht
ml
[2] Saws from: [1] Deshayes, Jean,
''Les outils de bronze, de l'Indus au
Danube (IVe au IIe millénaire)'',
Librairie orientaliste P.
Geuthner/Paris,
1960 {Deshayes_Les_Outils_1960.pdf} CO
PYRIGHTED
source: Deshayes, Jean, "Les outils de
bronze, de l'Indus au Danube (IVe au
IIe millénaire)", Librairie
orientaliste P. Geuthner/Paris,
1960 {Deshayes_Les_Outils_1960.pdf}
[2613 BC]
Fourth dynasty of Egypt. Sneferu,
Cheops, Chephren, and Mycerinus.
[01/01/2600 BC]
their invention of cuneiform, the
practice of writing expands beyond
debt/payment certificates and inventory
lists and is applied for the first time
to written messages, mail delivery,
history, legend, mathematics,
astronomical records and other
pursuits. Following this, the first
formal schools are established, usually
under the guidance of a city-state's
primary temple.
[2600 BC]
Sumerian flood story, which tells about
the creation of humans, animals and the
first cities, how the Gods send a flood
to destroy humanity, the God Enki warns
the hero, Ziusudra {ZEUSUDru}, to build
a large boat, which he does and
survives the flood.
There are many similarities between the
stories of Ziusudra, Atrahasis,
Utnapishtim and Noah.
[1] Photo of Creation and deluge tablet
- note I did not verify that this is
the earliest tablet of the earliest
written story[t] Arno Poebel,
''Historical and grammatical texts'',
vols 1-5, 1914. vol 1:
http://books.google.com/books?id=tg0TAAA
AYAAJ vol 4:
http://books.google.com/books?id=mxwYAAA
AYAAJ vol 5:
http://books.google.com/books?id=_A0TAAA
AYAAJ
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=_A0TAAAAYAAJ
[2500 BC]
[2500 BC]
[2500 BC]
metal objects.
[2500 BC]
[2500 BC]
[2500 BC]
valley.
[2500 BC]
[1] The Royal Game of Ur From Ur,
southern Iraq, about 2600-2400
BC One of the most popular games of
the ancient world This game board is
one of several with a similar layout
found by Leonard Woolley in the Royal
Cemetery at Ur. The wood had decayed
but the inlay of shell, red limestone
and lapis lazuli survived in position
so that the original shape could be
restored. The board has twenty squares
made of shell: Five squares each have
flower rosettes, 'eyes', and circled
dots. The remaining five squares have
various designs of five dots. According
to references in ancient documents, two
players competed to race their pieces
from one end of the board to another.
Pieces were allowed on to the board at
the beginning only with specific throws
of the dice. We also know that rosette
spaces were lucky. The gaming pieces
for this particular board do not
survive. However, some sets of gaming
pieces of inlaid shale and shell were
excavated at Ur with their boards. The
boards appear to have been hollow with
the pieces stored inside. Dice, either
stick dice or tetrahedral in shape,
were also found. Examples of this
'Game of Twenty Squares' date from
about 3000 BC to the first millennium
AD and are found widely from the
eastern Mediterranean and Egypt to
India. A version of the Mesopotamian
game survived within the Jewish
community at Cochin, South India until
modern times. PD
source: http://www.britishmuseum.org/ima
ges/ps121289_l.jpg
[2] he oldest backgammon in the world
along with 60 pieces has been unearthed
beneath the rubbles of the legendary
Burnt City in Sistan-Baluchistan
province, southeastern Iran, Iranian
Cultural Heritage News Agency
reported. Iranian archeologists
working on the relics of the
5,000-year-old civilization argue this
backgammon is much older than the one
already discovered in Mesopotamia and
their evidence is strong enough to
claim the board game was first played
in the Burnt City and then transferred
to other civilizations. ''The
backgammon reveals intriguing clues to
the lifestyle of those people,'' said
Mansour Sajjadi, head of the research
team. ''The board is rectangular and
made of ebony, which did not grow in
Sistan and merchants used to import it
from India.'' He added the board
features an engraved serpent coiling
around itself for 20 times, thus
producing 20 slots for the game, more
affectionately known in Persian as
Nard. The engraving, artistically done,
indicates artisans in the Burnt City
were masters of the craft. ''The 60
pieces were also unearthed inside a
terracotta vessel beside the board.
They were made of common stones
quarried in the city, including agate
and turquoise,'' Sajjadi
added. Experts still wonder why they
played the game with 60 pieces and are
trying to discern its rules, but it at
least shows it is 100-200 years older
than the one discovered in Mesopotamia.
... PD
source: http://www.payvand.com/news/04/d
ec/dice-ancient.jpg
[2450 BC]
(parchment).
[1] Image: A detail of the Ten
Commandments scroll. Credit:
DCI UNKNOWN
source: http://blogs.discovery.com/.a/6a
00d8341bf67c53ef0154384d333c970c-pi
[2400 BC]
text in Syria, at Elba, near Aleppo,
from palace libraries and archives.
[2400 BC]
written on a clay tablet in Lagash.
This document is created by an
archivist of Entemena, the fifth in a
dynasty of rulers of Lagash. The
purpose of the document is to record
the boundary between Lagash and Umma,
but to set the context, describes the
history of the border and the struggle
for power between Lagash and Umma as
far back as the archivist's records
reach, which is to the time of Mesilim,
the suzerain of Sumer around 2600 BCE.
This text is somewhat abstract because
of the many references to gods.
[2345 BC]
[2345 BC]
[1] Papyrus Prisse. Egyptien 189.
Enseignement de Ptahhotep(217-298)
UNKNOWN
source: http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148
/btv1b8304612b/f1.highres
[2300 BC]
[1] Figures 2b and 2a from: J.
Henderson, J. Evans and K. Nikita,
''ISOTOPIC EVIDENCE FOR THE PRIMARY
PRODUCTION, PROVENANCE AND TRADE OF
LATE BRONZE AGE GLASS IN THE
MEDITERRANEAN'', Mediterranean
Archaeology and Archaeometry, Vol. 10,
No. 1, pp. 1‐24.
2010. http://www.rhodes.aegean.gr/maa_j
ournal/Henderson%2010_1.pdf COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.rhodes.aegean.gr/maa_
journal/Henderson%2010_1.pdf
[2] Glass ingots (inset) from a Bronze
Age shipwreck near Turkey fit Egyptian
molds. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.toutankharton.com/IMG
/jpg/a6260_1449.jpg
[2300 BC]
[2234 BC]
[2200 BC]
observatory in the Americas is near
Lima, Peru. Structures at the site,
discovered near Lima, Peru, align with
the directions of sunrise and sunset at
critical points in the agricultural
calendar, including December 21, the
start of the Southern Hemisphere's
growing season, and June 21, the end of
harvest.
[1] A giant carving of a frowning face
is among the sculptures found at what
experts say is the oldest known
astronomical observatory in the Western
Hemisphere. Structures at the site,
discovered near Lima, Peru, align with
the directions of sunrise and sunset at
critical points in the agricultural
calendar, including December 21, the
start of the Southern Hemisphere's
growing season, and June 21, the end of
harvest. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://news.nationalgeographic.c
om/news/bigphotos/66237588.html
[2181 BC]
[2160 BC]
[2134 BC]
[2134 BC]
[2130 BC]
[1] [t Note that this is not evidence
of the earliest horn, but is from
around 1250BC or 700 BCE] Hittites:
Musical scene, Carchemish Height:
100 cm, 700 BC. Museum of Anatolian
Civilizations, Ankara Three men are
playing a drum, while on the left a man
is holding a horn-shaped instrument to
his mouth with both hands. PD
source: http://farm1.staticflickr.com/6/
10156251_017f473153_b.jpg
[2100 BC]
[2100 BC]
system, a sexagesimal (base 60) number
system. Fractional values such as 1/60
and 1/3600 are also in use.
[1] Archaic Bookkeeping, Nissen, 1993,
pp145. COPYRIGHTED
source: Archaic Bookkeeping, Nissen,
1993, pp145.
[2] Archaic Bookkeeping, Nissen, 1993,
pp148. COPYRIGHTED
source: Archaic Bookkeeping, Nissen,
1993, pp148.
[2050 BC]
[2040 BC]
[2000 BC]
China.
[2000 BC]
[2000 BC]
[2000 BC]
wheel lighter in weight.
[1] Fig. 4. Rakhigarhi: Terracotta
wheel. The painted lines radiating from
the central hub and reaching the
circumference clearly represent the
spokes of the wheel. Mature
Harappan. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.sksuman.110mb.com/ind
ex_files/image542.jpg
[2] Fig. 5. Banawali: Terracotta
wheels showing the spokes in low
relief. The specimen on the left
is worn out but the spokes may still
be seen. The specimen on the right,
though broken, shows the spokes very
clearly. Mature Harappan. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.sksuman.110mb.com/ind
ex_files/image620.jpg
[2000 BC]
[1] Ancient wooden lock and key from
Khorsabad (Much reduced) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.usgennet.org/usa/topi
c/preservation/science/inventions/chpt8.
htm
[2000 BC]
clay tablet from the library in the
tablet house in Nippur. This tablet
lists the titles of numerous tablets
with stories recognized by modern
people from other tablets.
[1] PLATE II OLDEST LITERARY
CATALOGUE This plate illustrates a
literary catalogue compiled in
approximately 2000 B. C. (clay tablet
29.15.155 in the Nippur collection of
the University Museum). The upper part
represents the tablet itself; the lower
part, the author's hand copy of the
tablet. The titles of those
compositions whose actual contents we
can now reconstruct in large part are
as follows: 1. Hymn of King Shulgi
(approximately 2100 B. C.). 2. Hymn of
King Lipit-Ishtar (approximately 1950
B. C.). 3. Myth, ''The Creation of the
Pickax'' (see p. 51). 4. Hymn to
Inanna, queen of heaven. 5. Hymn to
Enlil, the air-god. 6. Hymn to the
temple of the mother-goddess Ninhursag
in the city of Kesh. 7. Epic tale,
''Gilgamesh, Enkidu, and the Nether
World'' (see p. 30). 8. Epic tale,
''Inanna and Ebih'' (see p. 82). 9.
Epic tale, ''Gilgamesh and
Huwawa.'' 10. Epic tale, ''Gilgamesh
and Agga.'' 11. Myth, ''Cattle and
Grain'' (see p. 53). 12. Lamentation
over the fall of Agade in the time of
Naram-Sin (approximately 2400 B.
C.). 13. Lamentation over the
destruction of Ur. This composition,
consisting of 436 lines, has been
almost completely reconstructed and
published by the author as
Assyriological Study No. 12 of the
Oriental Institute of the University of
Chicago. 14. Lamentation over the
destruction of Nippur. 15. Lamentation
over the destruction of Sumer. 16.
Epic tale, ''Lugalbanda and
Enmerkar.'' 17. Myth, ''Inanna's
Descent to the Nether World'' (see p.
83). 18. Perhaps a hymn to
Inanna. 19. Collection of short hymns
to all the important temples of
Sumer. 20. Wisdom compositions
describing the activities of a boy
training to be a scribe. 21. Wisdom
composition, ''Instructions of a
Peasant to His Son.'' 16 PD
source: http://www.sacred-texts.com/ane/
sum/img/pl02.jpg
[2000 BC]
[1] The Yale Tablet of the Gilgamesh
Epic License: The Project Gutenberg
eBook, An Old Babylonian Version of the
Gilgamesh Epic, by Anonymous, Edited by
Morris Jastrow, Translated by Albert T.
Clay This eBook is for the use of
anyone anywhere at no cost and
with almost no restrictions
whatsoever. You may copy it, give it
away or re-use it under the terms of
the Project Gutenberg License
included with this eBook or online at
www.gutenberg.org
source: http://www.gutenberg.org/files/1
1000/11000-h/11000-h.htm
[2000 BC]
(verify)
[2000 BC]
[1] Copper ingot from Zakros,
Crete Photo by Chris 73 GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/02/Copper_Ingot_Crete.jp
g
[1842 BC]
and alphabet, a proto-semitic alphabet
made by Canaanites in the Egyptian
turquoise mines of Serabit in southern
Sinai. This alphabet is thought to have
replaced cuneiform, and may be root of
all other alphabets.
mines ) Serabit el-Khadem, Sinai
Peninsula
[1] Combination of 3 images: [1] Erich
Lessing THE RIDDLE OF THE SPHINX. This
10-inch-long sphinx fashioned from
sandstone proved to be the key to
deciphering the Proto-Sinaitic script.
It was discovered by Petrie amid the
ruins of Serabit’s Hathor temple and
includes dedicatory inscriptions on
both sides of the base (underlined in
yellow in the photo above) and on the
right shoulder. Both inscriptions on
the base are written in the
Proto-Sinaitic alphabetic script. The
inscription on the right shoulder is
written in Egyptian hieroglyphs, The
hieroglyphic text identifies the name
of the goddess to whom the sphinx is
dedicated as Hathor, “the mistress of
turquoise.” The famous Egyptologist
Alan Gardiner observed that each of the
signs in the Proto-Sinaitic texts
represented not an entire word, as in
hieroglyphic, but only its initial
sound. Four of these strange signs
(written left-to-right) spelled the
name Baalat, a Canaanite word also
meaning “the Mistress.” Thus was
Gardiner able to translate Baalat, the
first word deciphered in alphabetic
script. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.basarchive.org/bswb_g
raphics/BSBA/36/02/BSBA360204220L.jpg
[2] Erich Lessing THE RIDDLE OF THE
SPHINX. This 10-inch-long sphinx
fashioned from sandstone proved to be
the key to deciphering the
Proto-Sinaitic script. It was
discovered by Petrie amid the ruins of
Serabit’s Hathor temple and includes
dedicatory inscriptions on both sides
of the base (underlined in yellow in
the photo above) and on the right
shoulder. Both inscriptions on the base
are written in the Proto-Sinaitic
alphabetic script. The inscription on
the right shoulder is written in
Egyptian hieroglyphs, The hieroglyphic
text identifies the name of the goddess
to whom the sphinx is dedicated as
Hathor, “the mistress of
turquoise.” The famous Egyptologist
Alan Gardiner observed that each of the
signs in the Proto-Sinaitic texts
represented not an entire word, as in
hieroglyphic, but only its initial
sound. Four of these strange signs
(written left-to-right) spelled the
name Baalat, a Canaanite word also
meaning “the Mistress.” Thus was
Gardiner able to translate Baalat, the
first word deciphered in alphabetic
script. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.basarchive.org/bswb_g
raphics/BSBA/36/02/BSBA360204220L.jpg
[1800 BC]
alphabet thought to be developed at
this time.
[1800 BC]
Egypt.
[1800 BC]
[1786 BC]
[1700 BC]
from asia in the form of the two
wheeled chariot (as seen in image of
tutankhamun).
[1700 BC]
text, found in Nippur. This is a 3 by
4.5 inch Sumerian clay tablet. This
text include instructions describing
how far apart to plow, how far apart to
space barley seeds, to change the
direction of furrows each year, when to
water the plants, and to harvest the
barley "in the day of its strength"
before the barley bends under its own
weight. This text shows that 3 people
work together as a team to harvest
barley, a reaper (cutter), a binder and
a third whose job is not clear.
Threshing of the barley is done by a
sledge (sled) moved back and forth over
the heaped up grain stalks for 5 days.
The barley is then "opened" with an
"opener" which is drawn by oxen. The
grain is then winnowed with pitch forks
to free it from dust and laid on
sticks.
[1700 BC]
horse back riding, is on a clay tablet
that tells a Sumerian fable.
[1650 BC]
early mathematical writing.
[1600 BC]
[1551 BC]
[1550 BC]
written on a clay tablet in Sumerian.
Some of these fables will be ancestors
of Aesop's fables 1000 years later
around 550BCE. The Sumerian fables
include stories about talking animals
such as dogs, cattle, donkeys, foxes,
pigs, sheep, lions, wild oxen (the now
extinct Bos primigenius), goats and
wolves.
[1531 BC]
[1] Description English: Venus Tablet
of Ammisaduqa. Neo-Assyrian
period. Date 15 July 2010 Current
location [show]British
Museum Source/Photographer Fæ (Own
work) Permission (Reusing this
file) See below. British Museum
reference K.160 Detailed
description Upper part of a clay
tablet, 3 pieces, beginning of obverse
and the end of reverse are wanting,
astrological forecasts, a copy of the
so-called Venus Tablet of Ammisaduqa,
Neo-Assyrian. ~ Description extract
from BM record. Size Length: 17.14 cm
(6.75 in) Width: 9.2 cm (3.6 in)
Thickness: 2.22 cm (0.87
in) Location Room 55 CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/bb/Venus_Tablet_of_Ammis
aduqa.jpg
[1500 BC]
brick").
[1] [t Note that this is not the oldest
baked brick as far as I
know] Description العربية:
أنقاض مدينة أور
الأثرية في محافظة ذي
قار جنوب العراق English:
Ruins in the Town of Ur, Southern
Iraq Español: Ruinas de la ciuad de
Ur con el Zigurat de Ur-Nammu al fondo
a las afueras de Nasiriyah. Date 20
June 2006 Source Flickr Author
M.Lubinski from Iraq,USA. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Ur-Nassiriyah.j
pg/1280px-Ur-Nassiriyah.jpg
[1500 BC]
[1500 BC]
[1500 BC]
[1] Part of a Bas-relief showing a
Pulley, and a Warrior originally in
the most ancient palace of
Nimroud. PD
source: http://www.ctesiphon.com/auction
s/Nineve-Remains-NY-1854-s-g.jpg
[1500 BC]
[1500 BC]
वेद) (English:
"knowledge"), four ancient Indian
collections of hymns and ritual
formulas are started around this time.
The 4 "Vedas" form the oldest
scriptural texts of the religion of
Hinduism. The four Vedas are: the
"Rig-Veda", the "Yajur-Veda", the
"Sama-Veda", and the "Atharva-Veda".
[1500 BC]
{KlePSiDru}).
[1] clepsydra Egyptian clepsydra An
Egyptian clepsydra Also known as a
water clock, an instrument in which the
discharge of water from a storage tank
is monitored in order to measure the
passing of time. Clepsydras were used
from ancient times until the
Renaissance. ''Clepsydra'' is Greek for
''water thief.'' UNKNOWN
source: http://www.daviddarling.info/ima
ges/Egyptian_clepsydra.jpg
[2] The Karnak clepsydra In 1904,
archaeological excavations within the
ancient temple complex of Karnak in
Egypt led to the recovery of fragments
of a large conical vessel. The presence
of an outlet near the base, plus
calibration scales on the interior
walls, showed the object to be a
classic example of an outflow
clepsydra. Figure 6: A full-size
reconstruction of the Karnak clepsydraA
full-size reconstruction (Fig. 6) may
be seen in the New Walk Museum, and
illustrates how it could act as a
timekeeper independent of the Sun. The
vessel is filled with water to a mark
near the rim, and then allowed to empty
via a narrow jet near the base. With a
cylindrical container the rate of flow
diminishes as the head of water within
the pot decreases, so the water surface
drops more slowly with time. The
ancient Egyptian designer (Amenhemhet,
about 1550 B.C.) has cleverly
compensated for this by employing a
conical vessel, and trials conducted
during the construction of this exhibit
have shown that the chosen angle gives
rise to an excellent approximation to a
linear descent of the water
surface. The hieroglyphics covering
the outside of the vessel (delineated
by Dr. Sarah Symons) do not explain how
the water clock was to be used: they
are simply traditional decorations in
praise of the gods. More information is
given alongside the exhibit. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.sundials.co.uk/leices
ter/fig06.jpg
[1500 BC]
Mesopotamia, is the oldest surviving
map of a city.(verify)
[1] Nippur, Babylonia circa 1500 B.C.
— Earliest known map drawn to
scale PD
source: http://bookofjoe.typepad.com/.sh
ared/image.html?/photos/uncategorized/20
08/04/10/2ftftyfytf.jpg
[1358 BC]
(BCE c1385-c1350), Pharaoh of Egypt,
introduces the concept of monotheism.
Some people claim that Zoroastrianism,
Judaism and therefore all monotheistic
religions descend from Amenhotep's Sun
God Aton.
Akhenaton may be the first person of
recorded history to question or doubt
the ancient "gods rule the universe"
theory, although Akhenaton clearly
believes in the existence of a god.
[1] Antiquit� �gyptienne,
Akh�naton, Mus�e
�gyptien du Caire, (�gypte).
Statue of Akhenaten depicted in a
style typical of the Amarna period, on
display at the Museum of Egyptian
Antiquities, Cairo Reign 1353 BC
� 1336 BC[2] or 1352 BC �
1336 BC[3] or 1351�1334 BC[4] CC
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:GD-EG-Caire-Mus%C3%A9e061.JPG
[2] English: Amun and
Mut Nederlands: Amon en
Mut Source http://runeberg.org/nfba/04
95.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Amon_och_Mut%2C_Nordisk_familjebok.pn
g
[1310 BC]
[1300 BC]
[1300 BC]
Syria, at Ugarit (Ras-Shamra) near
Latakia, from palace libraries and
archives.
[1200 BC]
[1200 BC]
[1200 BC]
galley with fifty oars.
[1200 BC]
[1200 BC]
casting.
[1200 BC]
[1198 BC]
[1180 BC]
[1087 BC]
[1000 BC]
[1000 BC]
ship propelled by humans).
[1000 BC]
[1000 BC]
[1000 BC]
[1000 BC]
[1] Diagram 3a: A simple compound
pulley system—a movable pulley and a
fixed pulley lifting weight W, with an
additional pulley redirecting the
lifting force downward. The tension in
each line is W/3, yielding an advantage
of 3. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Pulley2a.svg/10
00px-Pulley2a.svg.png
[1000 BC]
in Cornwall.
[1000 BC]
[1000 BC]
Egypt.
[1000 BC]
[1] Description English: Photo of
the Nimrud lens in the british
museum Date feb 2011 Source
Photo by user:geni Author
Geni CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/65/Nimrud_lens_British_M
useum.jpg
[945 BC]
[922 BC]
[910 BC]
Start of the Iron Age.
[1] Xander Veldhuijzen and Eveline van
der Steen, ''Iron Production Center
Found in the Jordan Valley'', Near
Eastern Archaeology, Vol. 62, No. 3
(Sep., 1999), pp. 195-199 Published
by: The American Schools of Oriental
Research Article Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/3210714 COP
YRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3210
714
[900 BC]
[850 BC]
alphabet language from phoenician
humans. Phoenician humans are using a
variation of letters used at this time
by Semite humans in Syria-Palestine,
Canaanite writing. "Alef" (ox), "beth"
(house), "gimel" (camel), "daleth"
(door), etc. are changed to "alpha",
"beta", "gamma", "delta", etc. The
semitic alphabets Hebrew and Arabic are
descended from the Canaanite language.
[848 BC]
[819 BC]
[800 BC]
in "cup", "run").
[800 BC]
[1] From
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teth GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tet
h
[800 BC]
the Italian peninsula by people who
migrate from the north, and settled in
the Latium region, around the River
Tiber, where the Roman civilization
will first develop.
[800 BC]
musical notation.
[785 BC]
[1] by Ted Huntington PD
source: my own based on info from
http://www.britannica.com/eb/art-3466?ar
ticleTypeId=1 and
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/fac
tsheet/sunfact.html
[728 BC]
[722 BC]
[716 BC]
[715 BC]
[700 BC]
more than one sound. Letter "C" sounded
as "K" in addition to traditional "G"
sound.
[688 BC]
(Asurbanipal's predecessor) has a
library in the southwest palace, or
'palace without rival', at Nineveh.
[669 BC]
story of Gilgamesh: a wild-man Enkidu
is tamed by having sex with a woman,
Enkidu and Gilgamesh destroy Humbaba,
the beast-like guardian of the forest,
and a bull sent from Heaven, Enkidu is
killed as a punishment by the Gods, and
Gilgamesh visits him in the Underworld.
[668 BC]
Asurbanipal assembles library. This
library at Nineveh contains thousands
of tablets, many brought from other
sites.
[668 BC]
Ashurbanipal.
[1] Ashurbanipal on a Babylonian stela
PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Assurbanipal_als_hogepriester.jpg
[2] Ashurbanipal hunting, a palace
relief from Nineveh PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Assurbanipal_op_jacht.jpg
[664 BC]
This dynasty lasts from 664 to 525 BCE.
[651 BC]
eye clearly distinguished from stars
(Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and
Saturn).
[1] A. Sachs, ''Babylonian
Observational Astronomy'',
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London. Series A,
Mathematical and Physical Sciences ,
Vol. 276, No. 1257, The Place of
Astronomy in the Ancient World (May 2,
1974), pp.
43-50 http://www.jstor.org/stable/74273
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/7427
3
[650 BC]
from one place to another.
[640 BC]
[624 BC]
Miletus) born in Miletus.
[622 BC]
[622 BC]
Bible, The Ten Commandments, The Story
of Genesis).
[1]
http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/scrolls/imag
es/torah-b.jpg Miqsat Ma`ase
ha-Torah 4Q396(MMT[superscript]c) Parc
hment Copied late first century
B.C.E.-early first century C.E. The
Torah Precepts Scroll Translation of
the Torah Precepts Scroll Miqsat
Ma`ase
ha-Torah 4Q396(MMT[superscript]c) Parc
hment Copied late first century
B.C.E.-early first century
C.E. Fragment A: height 8 cm (3 1/8
in.), length 12.9 cm (5 in.) Fragment
B: height 4.3 cm (1 11/16 in.), length
7 cm (2 3/4 in.) Fragment C: height
9.1 cm (3 9/16 in.), length 17.4 cm (6
7/8 in.) Courtesy of the Israel
Antiquities Authority (8) The Torah
Precepts Scroll This scroll,
apparently in the form of a letter, is
unique in language, style, and content.
Using linguistic and theological
analysis, the original text has been
dated as one of the earliest works of
the Qumran sect. This sectarian
polemical document, of which six
incomplete manuscripts have been
discovered, is commonly referred to as
MMT, an abbreviation of its Hebrew
name, Miqsat Ma`ase ha-Torah. Together
the six fragments provide a composite
text of about 130 lines, which probably
cover about two-thirds of the original.
The initial part of the text is
completely missing. Apparently it
consisted of four sections: (1) the
opening formula, now lost; (2) a
calendar of 364 days; (3) a list of
more than twenty rulings in religious
law (Halakhot), most of which are
peculiar to the sect; and (4) an
epilogue that deals with the separation
of the sect from the multitude of the
people and attempts to persuade the
addressee to adopt the sect's legal
views. The ''halakhot,'' or religious
laws, form the core of the letter; the
remainder of the text is merely the
framework. The calendar, although a
separate section, was probably also
related to the sphere of ''halakhah.''
These ''halakhot'' deal chiefly with
the Temple and its ritual. The author
states that disagreement on these
matters caused the sect to secede from
Israel. References: Strugnell,
J., and E. Qimron. Discoveries in the
Judaean Desert, X. Oxford,
forthcoming. Sussman, Y. ''The
History of `Halakha' and the Dead Sea
Scrolls -- Preliminary Observations on
Miqsat Ma`ase Ha-Torah (4QMMT)'' (in
Hebrew), Tarbiz 59 (1990):11-76. PD
source: http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/scro
lls/images/torah-b.jpg
[621 BC]
Δράκων)
(flourishes 600s BCE), creates an early
law code in Athens. This law code is
very harsh, punishing both trivial and
serious crimes with death.
[609 BC]
[609 BC]
[605 BC]
library under Nebuchadnezzar.
[600 BC]
[1] King Kroisos period. Circa 561-546
BC. Kings of Lydia. Time of Kroisos.
Circa 561-546 BC. AV Stater (8.06
gm). Sardes mint. Light series.
Confronted foreparts of lion and
bull Two square incuse
punches of unequal size. Traité
pl. X, 2; BMC Lydia pg. 6, 31; SNG
Copenhagen Suppl. 362; Boston MFA 2073;
SNG von Aulock 2875. Choice
EF. From the Ronald Cohen
Collection. Ex Tkalec (18 February
2002), lot 81. Date Source
http://www.wildwinds.com/coins/gree
ce/lydia/kings/kroisos/BMC_31.jpg GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5c/Kroisos_BMC_31.jpg
[600 BC]
of Gods.
[1] Thales, one of the Seven Sages of
Greece From French Wikipedia:
fr:Image:Thales.jpg Original source:
http://www.phil-fak.uni-duesseldorf.de/p
hilo/galerie/antike/thales.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Thales.jpg
[600 BC]
[590 BC]
Σολων) (BCE
c630-c560), Athenian Statesman,
introduces democratic reform to the
government of Athens by changing rule
by people determined by birth to people
determined by wealth and implements a
more humane law code.
[1] This bust, titled 'Solon' (National
Museum, Naples) is technically more
sophisticated than anything produced in
Solon's own time. Ancient literary
sources, from which history largely
derives its knowledge of Solon, were
similarly constructed long after the
event. PD
source: http://www.usu.edu/markdamen/Cla
sDram/images/03/solon.jpg
[2] The Areopagus, as viewed from the
Acropolis, is a monolith where Athenian
aristocrats decided important matters
of state during Solon's time. CC
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Areopagus_from_the_Acropolis.jpg
[587 BC]
[05/08/585 BC]
moon on this day (according to
Herodotus).
[580 BC]
Theory that humans evolved from fish.
[575 BC]
adds changes to Deuteronomy to reflect
fall of Jerusalem while in Egypt.
[550 BC]
and "Forum" inscriptions.
[1] The w:en:Duenos inscription is an
Old Latin inscription from a vase found
near the Quirinal Hill in
Rome. Source: John Edwin Sandys,
''Epigraphy'', in A Companion to Latin
Studies (ed. John Edwin Sandys),
Cambridge, Cambridge University Press,
1913; p. 733, plate 108. This, in
turn, credits Heinrich Dressel
(1845-1920), Annali, pl. 1, 1880.
Probably this means the Annali dell'
Instituto di Corrispondenza
Archeologica. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Duenos_inscription.jpg
[2] This is a turn-of-the-century
rubbing of the Forum inscription, which
dates to the 5th century BCE and is one
of the oldest known Latin
inscriptions. Source: John Edwin
Sandys, ''Epigraphy'', in A Companion
to Latin Studies (ed. John Edwin
Sandys), Cambridge, Cambridge
University Press, 1913; p. 732, plate
107. This, in turn, credits Domenico
Comparetti (1835-1927), Iscrizione
archaica del Foro Romano, Firenze,
1900. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Forum_inscription.jpg
[545 BC]
(Πεισίσ
64;ρατος), the
tyrant of Athens founds a library in
Athens. This is the first library in
Greece. Xerxes will take this library
to Persia, and Seleucus Nicanor will
return it to Greece.
[545 BC]
[540 BC]
stars in Greece.
[1] [t Find better image if possible,
perhaps writing of Anaximenes work or
about him.] Description English:
Anaximenes of Miletus, presocratic
philosopher. Français : Anaximène de
Milet, philosophe
présocratique. Date Source first
upload to de.wikipedia by Dr. Manuel on
10 Mar 2005, cropped from
http://www.sir-ray.com/Anaximenes.jpeg
and tagged as Public Domain PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2d/Anaximenes.jpg
[538 BC]
[529 BC]
a sphere. "Pythagorean Theorem" (in a
right triangle: the square of the
lengths of the hypotenuse always equals
the sum of the square of the length of
the two other sides).
[1] Description: Phytagoras, coin made
under emperor Decius Source:
Baumeister, Denkmäler des klassischen
Altertums. 1888. Band III., Seite
1429 s Roman Emperor from 249 to
251. PD
source: http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.
uk/~history/BigPictures/Pythagoras_4.jpe
g
[2] Bust of Pythagoras UNKNOWN
source: http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.
uk/~history/BigPictures/Pythagoras.jpeg
[525 BC]
until 404 BCE.
[520 BC]
first account of history that does not
accept Gods and myths.
[03/12/515 BC]
Jerusalem.
[515 BC]
Bisitun or Bisutun,
بیستو
6; in modern Persian; in Old Persian is
Bagastana the meaning is "the god's
place or land") includes three versions
of the same text, written in three
different cuneiform script languages:
Old Persian, Elamite, and Babylonian.
Like the
Rosetta Stone is to translating
Egyptian hieroglyphs, so this
inscription is the most important
inscription to translating cuneiform
writing.
Iran)
[1] Behistun Inscription, with some
modern annotations Sketch: Fr.
Spiegel, Die altpers. Keilinschriften,
Leipzig 1881. Source:
http://titus.fkidg1.uni-frankfurt.de/did
act/idg/iran/apers/behistun.htm Copyrig
ht expired due to age of document PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:BehistunInscriptionSketch.jpg
[2] Darius I the Great's
inscription GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Darius_I_the_Great%27s_inscription.jp
g
[508 BC]
Κλεισθένης) (BCE c570-c508)
creates democratic reform of the
Athenian government, basing political
responsibility on citizenship of a
particular place instead of on
membership in a family clan.
The word "democracy" (Greek:
δημοκρατία - "rule by the
people") is invented by Athenians in
order to define their system of
government around this time. The word
Democracy comes from demos ("people")
and kratos ("rule").
[500 BC]
[500 BC]
orders a 1,306 line inscription carved
on a mountain in Behistan, Iran. This
text is in 3 languages, Old Persian,
Elamite, and Akkadian. This
inscription will later be used in the
1800s to translate cuneiform.
[499 BC]
Greek cities of Asia Minor against
Darius 1 of Persia. This advice is not
followed, the Greek revolt is
supressed, and the 150 year scientific
leadership of the Greek cities of Asia
Minor ends.
[470 BC]
red-hot metal.
[1] Description English: Detail of
the right-hand facade fresco, showing
Anaxagoras. National and Kapodistrian
University of Athens. Date c.
1888 Source http://nibiryukov.narod.r
u/nb_pinacoteca/nbe_pinacoteca_artists_l
.htm Author Eduard Lebiedzki,
after a design by Carl Rahl PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2c/Anaxagoras_Lebiedzki_
Rahl.jpg
[470 BC]
body. First human dissection.
[470 BC]
angle between the plane of the
celestial equator, and the zodiac (the
yearly path of the sun in the sky) to
be 24°. This measures the tilt of the
earth relative to the plane the earth
moves in.
[467 BC]
communication. The optical telegraph,
using fire signals.
[1] This image was moved from
Image:Image62.gif Description A
drawing of the lighthouse by German
archaeologist Prof. H. Thiersch
(1909). Date 2007-01-16 (original
upload date) Source Originally from
en.wikipedia; description page is/was
here. Author Original uploader
was Ragemanchoo at
en.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2e/Lighthouse_-_Thiersch
.gif
[2] English: Mosaic Lighthouse of
Alexandria: was found in the Qasr Libya
in Libya, which was known by several
names including history and Olbia
Theodorias, This is a painting that was
left over to show the form of
lighthouse after the quake, which
destroyed the lighthouse. Qasr Libya
Museum PD
source: http://freespace.virgin.net/ric.
martin/vectis/hookeweb/roberthooke.htm
[460 BC]
atoms.
[1] Coin with the head of Leukippos on
it from around 330-320
BC.[t] Greece,Metapont
330-320BC,Leukkipos,1/3stater. Hammer
price 2002: CHF 12.000. UNKNOWN
source: http://numisbooks.dk/info/fotos/
romanphotos/leukippos330-320.jpg
[460 BC]
natural philosopher, expresses
atheistic opinions.
[458 BC]
[454 BC]
Pythagorean meeting place. Plutarch
will relate that as a young man
Philolaus was one of two people to
escape this event.
[450 BC]
moves through space.
[450 BC]
law in Rome, are completed. These laws
describe rules for property, crimes,
marriage, divorce and funeral among
other topics.
[450 BC]
of metal connected together) from a
Celtic chieftain's burial in Ciumesti,
Romania.
[450 BC]
Chinese: 大运河;
Traditional Chinese:
大運河; pinyin: Dà
Yùnhé) of China, also known as the
Beijing-Hangzhou Grand Canal
(Simplified Chinese:
京杭大运河
; Traditional Chinese:
京杭大運河
; pinyin: Jīng Háng Dà Yùnhé),
the largest ancient canal or artificial
river on earth, is constructed at this
time.
[1] Grand Canal of China. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Kaiserkanal01.jpg
[438 BC]
[432 BC]
months, 7 years of 13 months.
[431 BC]
established in Sri Lanka.
According to the Mahavamsa (a
historical poem written in the
Pāli language, of the kings of Sri
Lanka), the ancient chronicle of
Sinhalese royalty written in the 500s
CE, King Pandukabhaya (300s BCE) had
lying-in-homes and hospitals
(Sivikasotthi-Sala) built in various
parts of the country. This is the
earliest documentary evidence there is
of institutions specifically dedicated
to the care of the sick anywhere in the
world. Mihintale Hospital is perhaps
the earliest hospital on earth.
In ancient cultures, religion and
medicine were linked. As early as 4000
BCE religions identified specific
deities with healing. The earliest
known institutions aiming to provide
cure were Egyptian temples. Greek
temples dedicated to the healer-god
Asclepius might admit the sick, who
would wait for guidance from the god in
a dream. The Romans adopted this diety
but using the name Æsculapius.
Æsculapius was provided with a temple
(291 BC) on an island in the Tiber in
Rome, where similar rites were
performed.
[1] Mihintale, Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka
Mihintale and Missaka Pabatha is
situated near to Anuradhapura in Sri
Lanka GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Mihintale_missaka.jpg
[430 BC]
Δημόκριτος) (BCE c460 -c370)
explains that the Milky Way is a large
group of stars and the universe is
filled with many other worlds.
[430 BC]
Greek poet and sophist, becomes an
atheist after an incident that happens
against him that goes unpunished by the
gods. He speaks out against the
orthodox religions, and criticizes the
Eleusinian Mysteries. Diagoras throws a
wooden image of a god into a fire,
saying that the deity should perform
another miracle and save itself. The
Athenians put a price on his capture,
dead or alive, and he flees, living the
rest of his life in southern Greece.
[424 BC]
public plays where characters doubt the
existence of the Gods.
[1] Description English: Theatre of
Dionysus and the throne for the archon
eponymos (the throne is dedicated to a
Roman citizen, Marcus Ulpius, and to
his two sons, 3rd Century A.D., in
recognition of their charitable works
during a time of famine). Deutsch:
Dies ist die Ehrensitzreihe des
Dionysostheaters in Athen. Date 31
March 2008 Source Own
work Author DerHexer GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b2/Ehrentribuene_Dionyso
stheater_Athen.jpg
[2] Aristophanes - Project Gutenberg
eText 12788 The Project Gutenberg
EBook of Library Of The World's Best
Literature, Ancient And Modern, Vol. 2,
by Charles Dudley
Warner http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/1
2788 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Aristophanes_-_Project_Gutenberg_eTex
t_12788.png
[404 BC]
[390 BC]
Socrates, founds the Cyrenaic school of
philosophy. Aristippus supports the
pursuit of pleasure and avoidance of
pain, usually refered to negativly as
"hedonism". Cyrene was a Greek city in
Northern Africa in modern day Libya.
Aristippus breaks social conventions
and engages in behavior considered
undignified or shocking for the sake of
pleasure. The Cyrenaic school will
developed these ideas and influence
Epicurus and later Greek skeptics.
Aristippus accepts money for
instruction as the Sophists do. They
also incorrectly reject the idea of
postponing immediate gratification for
future or long term pleasure. In this
respect they will differ from the
Epicureans. The main source of
information about Aristippus is from is
the "Lives of the Philosophers" by
Diogenes Laertius, who wrote over 500
years after Aristippus died.
[387 BC]
[1] Plato's Academy, Mosaic from Villa
of T. Siminius Stephanus, Pompeii
(photo courtesy of Branislav
Slantchev) PD
source: http://www.electrummagazine.com/
wp-content/uploads/2011/11/Platos_Academ
y_mosaic_T_Siminius_Stephanus_Pompeii.jp
g
[2] Description Academy of Athens
(modern) Source I (Dimboukas (talk))
created this work entirely by
myself. Date 19:53, 1 December 2009
(UTC) Author Dimboukas (talk) CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/thumb/8/82/Athens_academy.jpg/1
024px-Athens_academy.jpg
[378 BC]
[366 BC]
Αριστοτέλης Aristotélēs
(BCE 384 - March 7, 322) is a pupil of
Plato at the Academy until the age of
37 (347 BCE). Plato calls Aristotle
the "intelligence" of the school.
Aristotle studies biology and natural
history.
[1] Description 16th century painting
of Alexander the Great, lowered in a
glass diving bell Source NOAA Photo
Library, Image ID: nur09514, National
Undersearch Research Program (NURP)
Collection Date 2006-13-01
(upload) Author Credit: OAR/National
Undersea Research Program (NURP);
''Seas, Maps and Men'' PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Alexander_the_Great_diving_NOAA.jpg
[2] Description: Diving bell,
Marinmuseum (Naval museum), Karlskrona,
Sweden Source: Image taken by Henrik
Reinholdson CC
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:L-Taucherglocke.png
[347 BC]
in charge of the Academy. Aristotle
leaves the Academy.
Aristotle meets
Theophrastus in Lesbos, and a lifelog
friendship is started. Aristotle gives
the nickname "Theophrastus" (divine
speech) to Theophrastus whose real name
is Tyrtamus.
[342 BC]
the Son of Amyntas II, Phillip II is
King of Macedon, and wants Aristotle
back in court to teach his 14 year old
son Alexander.
[341 BC]
until 332 BCE.
[340 BC]
papyrus, in Greece.
[336 BC]
[332 BC]
architect, designed the new city over
Rhakotis, a fishing village believed to
have been in existence since the 13th
century BCE. Citizens from throughout
the Greek world quickly populated
Alexandria-as well as a large number of
non-citizens, including a large Jewish
community- turning it into a thriving
metropolis in a few short years.
[327 BC]
Aristotle) is killed at Alexanders
order.
[325 BC]
(Δικαια
61;χος) (DIKEoRKOS)
(Dicaearchus) (~355 BCE - ~285 BCE)
makes geometric constructions of a
hyperbola and a parabola, is among the
first to use geographical coordinates
(latitude and longitude).
[325 BC]
tides as being because of the influence
of the Moon, and shows that the North
star is not exactly at the pole and so
makes a circle everyday.
[1] Description Statue de Pythéas
sur la façade du palais de la Bourse
à Marseille. Date 6 February
2008 Source Own
work Author Rvalette Permission
(Reusing this file) See below. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Pyth%C3%A9as.jp
g/639px-Pyth%C3%A9as.jpg
[06/10/323 BC]
[323 BC]
Great's most trusted generals, and
among the seven "body-guards" attached
to his person. He was a few years older
than Alexander, and his intimate friend
since childhood. He may even have been
in the group of noble teenagers tutored
by Aristotle.
[320 BC]
(Πραξαγ
72;ρας) (~350 Cos - ???)
possibly teaches Herophilus, and is a
strong defender of the theories of
Hippocrates. Praxagoras distinguishes
between veins and arteries, recognizing
2 kinds of blood vessels (some credit
this to Alcmaeon). He things arteries
carry air (arteries are named for this
opinion), thinks arteries lead to
smaller vessels (which is true) that
then turned in to nerves (which is
false). Praxagoras noted the physical
connection between the brain and spinal
chord.
[317 BC]
(Δημήτρ
53;ος
Φαληρεa
3;ς ) (Demetrius Phalereus) (died
c. 280 BCE) is an Athenian orator, a
student of Aristotle (who also teaches
Theophrastus and Alexander the Great),
and one of the first Peripatetics.
Demetrius writes extensively on the
subjects of history, rhetoric, and
literary criticism.
Demetrius is helped
into power in Athens by Alexander's
successor Cassander.
From 317 BCE to
307 BCE, Demetrius Phalereus is the
despot of Athens, serving under
Cassander. During this time he
provides
money for Theophrastus to build the
Lyceum which is to be devoted to
Aristotle's studies and modeled after
Plato's Academy.
institutes extensive legal
reforms. Carystius of Pergamum mentions
that he had a boyfriend by the name of
Diognis, of whom all the Athenian boys
were jealous. This shows clearly that
bisexuality was much more accepted as
natural in Greece. As time continues,
humans will lose this wisdom by
becoming more intolerent of
bisexuality.
[316 BC]
gods had been originally kings, for
example that Zeus was a king of Crete,
who had been a great conqueror.
[310 BC]
the precession of equinoxes (a wobbling
in the orientation of Earth's axis with
a cycle of almost 26,000 years).
Babylonia
[1] A Babylonian almanac, mentioning
future positions of the planets
(British Museum) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.livius.org/a/1/mesopo
tamia/babylonian_almanac.jpg
[310 BC]
(Στρατό
62;) (340 BCE Lampsacus - 270 BCE
Athens) studies at the Lyceum, traveles
to Alexandria, possibly tutors the son
of Ptolomy I (the Macedonian general
made King of Egypt) there.
Strato has an atheist view of the
universe. Strato views the universe as
a mechanical structure without any
dieties.
Strato is mainly interested in physics,
and expands on Aristotle's physics by
noticing that falling objects (for
example rainwater off a roof)
accelerate as they fall to the ground
rather than falling at a steady rate as
Aristotle predicted.
Another one of his teachings was the
doctrine of the void, postulating that
all bodies contained a void of variable
size, which also accounted for weight
differences between bodies.
One of Strato's students at the Lyceum
is Aristarchus of Samos.
[310 BC]
of Aristippus the founder of the
Cyrenaic of philosophy, writes "on
Gods", which uses various arguments to
try to destroy Greek theology.
[307 BC]
Athens, Demetrius Falereus is
overthrown, and he flees to Egypt.
Demetrius goes into exile a second time
on the accession of Ptolemy
Philadelphus, and he died soon
afterward.
[305 BC]
lighthouse of Alexandria on the island
of Pharos. The building is designed by
Sostratus of Knidos (Cnidus) (Greek:
Σώστρα`
4;ος
Κνίδιο`
2;). The building will not be completed
until the reigh on Ptolemy II. With a
height variously estimated at between
115 and 135 metres (383 - 440 ft) it
was among the tallest man-made
structures on Earth for many centuries,
and was identified as one of the Seven
Wonders of the World by Antipater of
Sidon. It is claimed that the light
from the lighthouse could be seen up to
35 miles (56 km) from shore.
It will cease operating and will be
largely destroyed as a result of two
earthquakes in the 14th century CE;
some of its remains will be found on
the floor of Alexandria's Eastern
Harbour by divers in 1994. More of the
remains will be revealed by satellite
imaging.
Constructed from large blocks of
light-coloured stone, the tower is made
up of three stages: a lower square
section with a central core, a middle
octagonal section, and, at the top, a
circular section. At its top is
positioned a mirror which reflects
sunlight during the day and a fire at
night. Roman coins struck by the
Alexandrian mint show that a statue of
a triton is positioned on each of the
building's 4 corners. A statue of
Poseidon will stand atop the tower
during the Roman period.
The lighthouse is 350 feet high,
forming a tower with 3 stories and a
latern. The bottom story is square, 180
feet tall, with many windows, and 300
rooms, where the mechanics and
attendants are housed. This story has a
square platform and a cornice with
figures of Tritons. the second story is
octagonal, 90 feet high, surrounded by
a balcony. The third story is round and
60 feet high. Inside the tower a spiral
ramp, perhaps double, goes from bottom
to top. Possibly in the center was a
hydraulic lift for lifting fuel.
Alternatively, fuel could be hauled up
the ramps by animals. (oxen?, horses?)
Above the latern is a bronze statue of
Poseidon, 20 feet tall. The tower is
built of limestone faced with marble
and decorated outside with sculptures
if marble and bronze.
The lantern will fall around 700CE. The
second and third stories will fall from
an earthquake around 1100 CE.
[300 BC]
Εκαταίος) of Abdura
(Άβδηρα) (340-280 BCE) writes
"Aegyptiaca" (a history of Egypt).
[1] A reconstruction of the main hall
of the Museum of Alexandria used in the
series Cosmos by Carl Sagan. The wall
portraits show Alexander the Great
(left) and Serapis
(right). COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.thelivingmoon.com/43a
ncients/04images/Alexandria/Alexandria-C
osmosReconstruction1.jpg
[2] Credit:
s_davies@mail.utexas.edu The Library
of Alexandria was one of the best-known
of the libraries of the ancient world.
UNKNOWN
source: http://www.thelivingmoon.com/43a
ncients/04images/Alexandria/alexlibext.j
pg
[297 BC]
invitation from King Ptolemy I Soter in
297 BCE to tutor Ptolemy's heir, and
instead recommends Demetrios Falireus
(other sources cite Straton as being
recommended and tutoring ), who had
recently been driven out from Athens as
a result of political fallout from the
conflicts of Alexander's successors.
This information is based on the
"Letter of Aristeas", which will be
written around 150 BCE. Ptolemy I
accepts Demetrios Falireus, and
Demetrios moves to Egypt. Demtrios
Falireus is a politician, and prolific
writer. Diogenes Laertius will write
highly of Demetrios and will provide a
list of Demetrios' works on a wide
range of subjects.
Demetrios begins collecting texts for
the King's library, following the
tradition of Plato, with works on
state-forming, kingship and ruling.
[297 BC]
[1] A reconstruction of the main hall
of the Museum of Alexandria used in the
series Cosmos by Carl Sagan. The wall
portraits show Alexander the Great
(left) and Serapis
(right). COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.thelivingmoon.com/43a
ncients/04images/Alexandria/Alexandria-C
osmosReconstruction1.jpg
[2] Credit:
s_davies@mail.utexas.edu The Library
of Alexandria was one of the best-known
of the libraries of the ancient world.
UNKNOWN
source: http://www.thelivingmoon.com/43a
ncients/04images/Alexandria/alexlibext.j
pg
[297 BC]
Ephasus (later to become the first head
librarian of record), and Euclid
(thought to be born in Alexandria)
respond to Ptolemy I Soter's invitation
to be employed in the Mousaeion.
[295 BC]
Alexander.
[290 BC]
history of Babylonia.
the Museum of Alexandria) Alexandria,
Egypt
[1] A reconstruction of the main hall
of the Museum of Alexandria used in the
series Cosmos by Carl Sagan. The wall
portraits show Alexander the Great
(left) and Serapis
(right). COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.thelivingmoon.com/43a
ncients/04images/Alexandria/Alexandria-C
osmosReconstruction1.jpg
[2] Credit:
s_davies@mail.utexas.edu The Library
of Alexandria was one of the best-known
of the libraries of the ancient world.
UNKNOWN
source: http://www.thelivingmoon.com/43a
ncients/04images/Alexandria/alexlibext.j
pg
[288 BC]
into Greek in Alexandria around this
time or later. Commonly refered to as
the "Septuagint" ("LXX"), because
according to the Letter of Aristeas, at
the advice of Demetrius Phalereus,
Ptolomy II hires 72 preists to come to
Alexandria to complete the
translation.
The Hebrew Bible is also called the Old
Testament by Christians. This text
includes the Pentateuch PeNToTUK and
other books for a total of 24 or 39
books depending on how they are
grouped. The Pentateuch (also called
the "Torah") is a Greek word derived
from the word "penta" (five) and
"teukos" (implement), which means
"implementation of five books", and
refers to the Hebrew Bible's books of
Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers,
and Deuteronomy.
Probably the Pentateuch is translated
into Greek in the third century BCE,
Isaiah and Jeremiah translated during
the first half of the second century
BCE, and the Psalms and the rest of the
Prophets during the second half of the
second century BCE.
[288 BC]
Demetrios Falireus about choice of
co-regent from among children of his
two wives. Demetrios speaks in favor
of the children of Eurydice, but Soter
chooses his son by Berenice as
co-ruler. This son, Ptolemy II will
never forgive Demetrios and will have
Demetrios arrested after Ptolemy I
dies. Another story has Ptolemy I
exiling Demetrios for this bad advice.
Ptolemy II Philadelphus (Greek:
Πτολεμ^
5;ίος
Φιλάδε_
5;φος, 309-01/29/246
BCE), begins reign as coregeant with
Ptolemy I from 288-285 BCE.
[287 BC]
Aristotle's library to Neleus.
According to Athenaeus, Ptolemy II buys
this library for a large sum of money.
However, in apparent conflict to this
story, Strabo will later write that the
willed books will stay in the family of
Neleus until sold to Apellicon, the
wealthy book collector of Teos.
Apellicon's library in Athens will be
captured by Sulla in 86 BCE and taken
to Rome. One way to resolve these
conflicting accounts is to presume that
the book collection sold to Ptolemy II
is probably the large collection of
books from the school library but not
Aristotles' and Theophrastos' own
original works. Ptolemy II probably
obtained Aristotle's writing, but not
original works when Straton, Ptolemy
II's former tutor is head of the
Lyceum. Plutarch will write that the
Peripatetics did not have the original
texts of Aristotle and Theophrastos
because the legacy of Neleus had
"fallen into idle and base hands".
[285 BC]
catapult and musical organ.
[1] Ktesibios water organ. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://alexandrias.tripod.com/ct
esibius.htm
[2] Ktesibios water pump. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://alexandrias.tripod.com/ct
esibius.htm
[283 BC]
arrested and or exiled to the delta
where Demetrios dies, possibly murdered
while sleeping by the venom of a snake
bite ordered by Ptolemy II.
[283 BC]
librarian by Ptolemy II. Zenodotus
will be head librarian from 283-270
BCE.
Zenodotus separates Homer into 24
books, which is the same as the number
of letters in the Greek alphabet,
marking alledgedly unauthentic versus
with an obelus {A mark (or ÷) used in
ancient manuscripts to indicate a
doubtful or spurious passage}.
[281 BC]
daughter of Lysimachus, was the mother
of his legitimate children. After her
he married, probably for political
reasons, his full-sister Arsinoë II,
the widow of Lysimachus, by an Egyptian
custom opposed to Greek morality.
Ptolemy deifies his parents and his
sister-wife, after her death (270 BC),
as Philadelphus. This surname was used
in later generations to identify
Ptolemy II himself, but it properly
belongs to Arsinoë only, not to the
king.
[281 BC]
interested zoology, and may be the
person that makes the garden, zoo, and
observatory. The zoo under Philadefus
contains lions, leopards, lynxes,
buffaloes, wild asses, a 45 foot
python, a giraffe, rhinoceros, polar
bear, parrots, peacocks, and
pheasants.
Callimachus, Theocritus, and a host of
lesser poets, glorify the Ptolemaic
family. Ptolemy himself is eager to
increase the library and to patronize
scientific research. He has unusual
beasts of far off lands sent to
Alexandria. Interested in Hellenic
tradition, he shows little interest in
the native religion.
There are limits on what the people in
the Alexandrian schools can write. One
story relates how Sotades of Maronea
satirized Ptolemy II and his sister
Arsinoe on the occasion of their
marriage, when identified, he was
imprisoned and executed, although this
story may have only been a myth to
scare people.
The material and literary splendour of
the Alexandrian court was at its height
under Ptolemy II.
Callimachus, Theocritus, and a host of
lesser poets, glorify the Ptolemaic
family. Ptolemy himself is eager to
increase the library and to patronize
scientific research. He has unusual
beasts of far off lands sent to
Alexandria. Interested in Hellenic
tradition, he shows little interest in
the native religion.
[06/10/280 BC]
in Syria, and Attalids in Pergamon
compete for scientific supremecy by
establishing Libraries and centers for
learning in their capitals, Alexandria,
Antioch, and Pergamum.
[1] A reconstruction of the main hall
of the Museum of Alexandria used in the
series Cosmos by Carl Sagan. The wall
portraits show Alexander the Great
(left) and Serapis
(right). COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.thelivingmoon.com/43a
ncients/04images/Alexandria/Alexandria-C
osmosReconstruction1.jpg
[2] Credit:
s_davies@mail.utexas.edu The Library
of Alexandria was one of the best-known
of the libraries of the ancient world.
UNKNOWN
source: http://www.thelivingmoon.com/43a
ncients/04images/Alexandria/alexlibext.j
pg
[280 BC]
Problems" from Aristotle's Lykeum
describes parallel wheel in mesh, but
does not specifically mention toothed
wheels. These may describe friction
wheels instead of gears.
[1] Input torque is applied to the ring
gear, which turns the entire carrier
(all blue), providing torque to both
side gears (red and yellow), which in
turn may drive the left and right
wheels. If the resistance at both
wheels is equal, the pinion gear
(green) does not rotate, and both
wheels turn at the same rate. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Differential_free.png
[2] If the left side gear (red)
encounters resistance, the pinion gear
(green) rotates about the left side
gear, in turn applying extra rotation
to the right side gear (yellow). GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Differential_locked.png
[275 BC]
Μανέθων), a native Egyptian
priest, writes a history of Egypt in
Greek.
[1] Manetho's ''Aegyptiaca'' Extract
from a comprehensive History of Egypt,
written in the 2nd century B.C. by a
Greek-speaking priest of
Heliopolis. PD
source: http://www.und.edu/instruct/cjac
obs/Manetho1.JPG
[275 BC]
contains a contract of apprenticeship
to a doctor who has a house training
clinic (oikia), which covers a period
of 6 years for a fee.
[275 BC]
BCE) is among Zenodotus' most famous
assistants. Callimachus may never
formally have held the position of
Librarian, but begins for the Library
the first subject catalog of history,
"the Pinakes" (tablets). This is
composed of 6 sections, and lists some
120,000 scrolls of classical poetry and
prose. The full title was "Tables of
those who were eminent in every branch
of learning, and what they wrote, in
120 volumes". It may include works not
yet obtained by the library. The
Pinakes are separated by subject.
These subjects include: comedy,
tragedy, lyric poetry, epic, rhetoric,
law, history, mathematics, medicine,
philosophy (natural science) and
miscellaneous. Within each subject,
authors are listed alphabetically, with
a short biography, a bibliography of
the author {a complete list of their
works}, also alphabetically ordered,
the opening words of each work, and the
length of the work.
The Pinakes will
serve as a model for future indexes,
for example the Arabic 10th century
"Al-Fihrist" by Ibn-Al-Nadim.
Callimachu
s reports that the library has 400,000
mixed scrolls with multiple works, and
90,000 scrolls of single works.
[270 BC]
(Απολλώ
57;ιος ο
Ρόδιος)
(not to be confused with Apollonius of
Perga, a contemporary at the school)
replaces Zenodotus as librarian from
c270-245 BCE. Apollonius is best known
for his "Argonautika", a literary epic
retelling the ancient story of Jason
and the Argonauts' quest for the Golden
Fleece.
What is known of Apollonius' life comes
from two accounts taken from scholia.
Alexandrian by birth, Apollonius was
drawn to the center of Hellenistic
scholarship, the Library of Alexandria,
where he became a student of
Callimachus. Callimachus almost
exclusively wrote epigrams and other
short works, while Apollonius became
interested in epic poetry. Their
difference of opinions over the
appropriate length and style for poetry
led to a long and bitter literary feud,
which may have been exacerbated after
Ptolemy II chose Apollonius over his
teacher Callimachus for the prestigious
post of chief librarian.
The Argonautika differs in some
respects from traditional or Homeric
Greek epic, though Apollonius certainly
used Homer as a model. The Argonautika
is much shorter than Homer"s epics,
with four books totaling less than
6,000 lines, while the Iliad runs to
more than 15,000. Apollonius may have
been influenced here by Callimachus"
brevity, or by Aristotle"s demand for
"poems on a smaller scale than the old
epics, and answering in length to the
group of tragedies presented at a
single sitting" (Poetics), which is
true of the Argonautika.
Apollonius" epic also differs from the
more traditional epic in its weaker,
more human protagonist Jason and in its
many discursions into local custom,
aeitiology, and other popular subjects
of Hellenistic poetry. Apollonius also
chooses the less shocking versions of
some myths, having Medea, for example,
merely watch the murder of Apsyrtos
instead of murdering him herself. The
gods are relatively distant and
inactive throughout much of the epic,
following the Hellenistic trend to
allegorize and rationalize religion.
Heterosexual loves such as Jason"s are
more emphasized than homosexual loves
such as that of Herakles and Hylas are
less discussed, another trend in
Hellenistic literature. Many critics
regard the love of Medea and Jason in
the third book as the Argonautica"s
best written and most memorable
episode.
[260 BC]
[1] Description Español: Esta
imagen ilustra la ventaja mecánica de
la palanca. Deutsch: Illustration des
Hebelgesetzes. Copyright © 2004
César Rincón. Imagen creada para la
Wikipedia en Español. Date
2004-08-05 (first version);
2004-08-07 (last version) Source
Originally from es.wikipedia;
description page is/was here. Author
Original uploader was CR at
es.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) Released under the GNU Free
Documentation License. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f2/Palanca-ejemplo.jpg
[260 BC]
Archimedes (Greek: Αρχιμήδης )
(287-212 BCE) is usually credited with
with the concept of the spiral screw.
[1] Description Archimedes' screw.
Public domain, from Chambers's
Encyclopedia (Philadelphia: J. B.
Lippincott Company, 1875). Added to
illustrate article en:Archimedes. Date
2007-06-18 (original upload
date) Source Originally from
en.wikipedia; description page is/was
here. Author Original uploader
was Ianmacm at en.wikipedia PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/82/Archimedes_screw.JPG
[2] Description Deutsch: animierte
Prinzip einer Foerderschnecke oder auch
Archimedesche Spirale genannt, mit
einer Kugel zur Demonstration der
Foerderbewegung. Date published
06.Mai 2007 Source
File:Archimedes-screw_one-screw-thr
eads_with-ball_3D-view_animated.gif
created by Silberwolf Author
Silberwolf (size changed by:
Jahobr) Permission (Reusing this
file) Own work, share alike,
attribution required (Creative Commons
CC-BY-SA-2.5) CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/22/Archimedes-screw_one-
screw-threads_with-ball_3D-view_animated
_small.gif
[260 BC]
Earth rotates around the Sun each year
and that the earth rotates around its
own axis once a day.
Egpyt
[1] Aristarchus's 3rd century BC
calculations on the relative sizes of
from left the Sun, Earth and Moon, from
a 10th century CE Greek copy PD
source: http://www.thelivingmoon.com/43a
ncients/04images/Artifacts/Aristarchus_w
orking.jpg
[2] Statue of Aristarchus at Aristotle
University in Thessalonica,
Greece UNKNOWN
source: http://www.thelivingmoon.com/43a
ncients/04images/People/Aristarchos_Samo
s.png
[260 BC]
from Alexandria is the first Greek
person to sail beyond the Red Sea,
through the Straight of Bab-El-Mandeb
(Gate of Tears) into the Indian Ocean.
[250 BC]
the most popular university in
philosophy is the Academy, but science
is moving to Alexandria.
[1] In the process, he calculated the
oldest known example of a geometric
series with the ratio 1/4 GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arc
himedes
[2] parabola and inscribed triangle.
PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Parabola.png
[246 BC]
the size of Earth.
[1] Eratosthenes experiment UNKNOWN
source: http://www.iucaa.ernet.in/~scipo
p/Obsetion/eratos/image008.jpg
[2] Eratosthenes (portrait) Copied
from w:es
Imagen:Eratostenes-retrato.png
(originally from Enciclopedia
Libre) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a2/Portrait_of_Eratosthe
nes.png
[246 BC]
(Greek:Πτολε
56;αίος
Ευεργέ`
4;ης) is King of Egypt from
246-222 BCE, after the death of Ptolemy
II.
[246 BC]
requests to all leaders to borrow their
books {papyri scrolls} for copying.
When Athens lends him texts of
Euripides, Aeschylus, and Sophocles,
Ptolemy III has them copied, but keeps
the originals, cheerfully forfeiting
the fortune of fifteen talents he
deposited as bond. This amount is the
equivalent of the annual salary of 300
laborers in 5th century BCE Athens.
Ptolemy III refuses to send grain to
Athens during famine unless he is
allowed to borrow the master copies of
the above dramas.
Ptolemy III is the
first king to search ships for books.
Galen, explaining how a copy of
"Epidemics" (a work of the Hippocratic
medical corpus), which had once
belonged to Mnemon of Sidon, reached
the library recounts that customs
officials had orders from Ptolemy III
to confiscate from passing ships all
books they had, which were then copied.
The originals were deposited in the
Library, and marked in the catalog
"from the ships". Sometimes owners
received copies, but probably many
people sailed away from Alexandria
minus their first editions. Galen
writes that competition between the
kings of Pergamon and Egypt, in bidding
for old books, inflated the prices and
leads to forgeries being made. Galen
writes that the books from the ships
were first put in warehouses.
Seneca will claim that the Ptolemies
collect so many manuscripts not for
sake of learning but merely as
ornaments to display their wealth and
power.
Ptolemy III stops exporting papyrus to
stop the young library created by the
Selucids in Pergamon from competing. As
a replacement for papyrus, people in
Pergamon use cow skin.
[245 BC]
Berenices ("Berenice's Hair") after
Ptolemy's wife Berenice II. She
sacrificed her hair in exchange for her
husband's safe return from the Third
Syrian War, which began in 246 BCE.
When the lock of hair disappeared,
Conon explained that the goddess had
shown her favor by placing it in the
sky. Not all Greek astronomers accepted
the designation. In Ptolemy's Almagest,
Coma Berenices is not listed as a
distinct constellation. However,
Ptolemy does attribute several seasonal
indications (parapegma) to Conon.
[240 BC]
[1] Serapeum Temple which housed the
''daughter library'' of the Library of
Alexandria. Source
www.alexandrinelibrarian.blogspot.com U
NKNOWN
source: http://3.bp.blogspot.com/_KQyC59
HU4I0/SrRlFDYM2iI/AAAAAAAAAC4/fmxC6-MP49
U/s320/Serapis_Temple02.jpg
[2] Hypatia (Rachel Weisz) teaching at
the Serapeum UNKNOWN
source: http://dmkraig.net/page13/page5/
files/agora1.jpg
[235 BC]
265-202 BCE), experiments with air,
finds that air expands with heat,
possibly made an air thermometer, and
notices that air is consumed by a
burning torch in a closed vessel.
[235 BC]
librarian of the library of Alexandria
and moves to Rhodes. Ptolemy III
Eurgetes appoints Eratosthenes to
replace Apollonius.
conflicts:
Ptolemy II Philadelphus appointed one
of Eratosthenes' teachers Callimachus
as the second librarian.
In 236 BC he
was appointed by Ptolemy III Euergetes
I as librarian of the Alexandrian
library, succeeding the first
librarian, Zenodotos, in that post.
[230 BC]
BCE 273-232), an Indian emperor, who
ruled the Maurya Empire across the
Indian subcontinent, establishes a
chain of hospitals in Hindustan around
this time.
Asoka founds hospitals for humans and
the other species and supplies medicine
to the public.
Asoka creates orders stopping violence
against animals.
[1] Ashoka the Great Mauryan
emperor Modern reconstruction of
Ashoka's portrait. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ashoka2.jpg
[2] A poltical map of the Mauryan
Empire, including notable cities, such
as the capital Pataliputra, and site of
the Buddha's enlightenment. Dark blue
represents the extend of the Mauryan
Empire under Emperor Ashoka, light blue
represents possible tributary states,
vassals or allies. Green blue
represents notable rivers, black
represetns modern political borders,
and brown represents the border of
South Asia. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Mauryan_Empire_Map.gif
[212 BC]
soldier during the sack of Syracuse
during the Second Punic War, despite
orders from the Roman general Marcellus
that he was not to be harmed. The
Greeks said that he was killed while
drawing an equation in the sand;
engrossed in his diagram and impatient
with being interrupted, he is said to
have muttered his famous last words
before being slain by an enraged Roman
soldier: Μη
μου
τους
κύκλου`
2;
τάραττ^
9; ("Do not disturb my circles").
[205 BC]
scholars organized games, festivals,
and library comptetitions. It remained
a cult center directed by a Priest.
The main shrine of Apollo is in Delphi,
for Zeus in Olympus, and for the Muses
in Alexandria.
[204 BC]
(c237-180bce) (different from
dramatist) replaces Eratosthenes as
fourth Head Librarian in Alexandria
from 204 to 189 BCE. Aristophanes is a
capable grammarian who introduces the
use of accents into the Greek Language.
Aristofanes seems to have less
magnetism on fellow scholars than
Eratosthenes did. After a 20
uneventful years, he will be succeeded
by the last recorded librarian,
Aristarchos of Samothrace (not to be
confused with Aristarchos of Samos, the
astronomer). Aristofanes grows up in
Egypt, and is head Librarian under
Ptolemy 4 Philopator (reigns 221-205
BCE). Vitruvius will write that
Aristophanes systematically read each
book in the library. As a judge in
poetry competitions Aristophanes could
recognize any borrowed lines in
addition to identifying the original
work. Aristophanes writes many
"hypotheseis", which are short
summaries that preface works. Much
information of lost works will reach
ppl of the future through these
hypotheseis. In his great
lexicographical work "Lexeis", he
separates words thought to be used by
ancient ppl (Palaioi) and words unknown
to ancient people, or new words
(Kainoterai).
[204 BC]
Πτολεμ^
5;ίος
Επιφαν^
2;ς, reigned 204-181 BCE) is king
of Egypt. Ptolemy 5 is the son of
Ptolemy 4 Philopator and Arsinoe III,
and is not more than five years old
when he comes to the throne, and under
a series of regents the kingdom is
paralysed.
[191 BC]
Πτολεμ^
5;ίος
Φιλομή`
4;ωρ, c. 191-145 BCE) is king
of Egypt. He will reign from 180 to 145
BCE.
[189 BC]
librarian of Alexandria Library from
189-175 BCE.
[175 BC]
(Samothrace) (Greek:
Σαμοθρ^
0;κη, Samothraki) (not
Aristarchos of Samos the astronomer),
is the 6th Head Librarian in the
Alexandria Library from 175-145 BCE.
Aristarcos of Samothrake, is appointed
by Ptolemy VI Philometor, and is a
Homeric scholar. Alexandrian
scholarship is dominated by literary
criticism. Aristarchos of Samothrake's
work "Life" in the Suidas Lexicon shows
that he had 40 pupils, and wrote 800
books of commentary, probably covering
most Greek classics.
[173 BC]
Πολυβι_
9;ς, c.203 BCE - 120 BCE) was a
Greek historian of the Mediterranean
world famous for his book called "The
Histories" or "The Rise of the Roman
Empire", covering the period of 220 BCE
to 146 BCE.
Polybius writes "It is no difficult
task to write from books provided one
resides in a city well equipped with
achives and a library". This is
evidence that public libraries were a
feature of most Hellenistic cities.
[145 BC]
Πτολεμ^
5;ίος
Ευεργέ`
4;ης) (c. 182 BC - 26 June
116 BC), nicknamed Physcon ("Potbelly"
or "Bladder") for his obesity is king
of Egypt.
[145 BC]
Physcon, the last distinguished
librarian of the Alexandria Library
Aristarchos of Samothrace goes into
exile in the company of other scholars,
replaced by "Cydas of the spearmen"
(145-116? BCE ).
[143 BC]
Chinese:石室中学
，文翁石室
，pinyin: shíshì
zhōngxúe,wén wēng
shíshì), founded during the Han
Dynasty by Wen Weng is the first local
Chinese public school, and is the
oldest middle school on earth today.
[140 BC]
[1] Description Early Chinese hemp
fiber paper, used for wrapping not
writing, on display at the Shaanxi
history museum in Xi'An, China.
Excavated from the Han Tomb of Wu Di
(140-87 BC) at Baqiao, Xi'An. Photo by
Yannick Trottier, 2007 Date 22
June 2007 Source Own work Author
Ytrottier GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/7f/Chinese_hemp_paper_we
stern_han.jpg
[2] It's the earliest Paper in the
world : Western Han (140-87 BC)
source: http://www.amateras.com/trip/chi
na/12Sha-Paper360x240.jpg
[01/01/134 BC]
(supernova) in Scorpio (according to
Pliny), around age 56, and decides to
make a star map of more than 1000 of
the brighter stars. His interest in the
fixed stars may have been inspired by
the observation of this supernova
(according to Pliny), or by his
discovery of precession (according to
Ptolemy, who will write that Hipparchos
could not reconcile his data with
earlier observations made by Timocharis
and Aristyllos). This map is better
than any previous star maps (including
those of Eudoxus and Eratosthenes).
Hipparchus uses the lines of latitude
and longitude of Dicaearchus 150 years
before to map the stars. In comparing
the current location of stars with
earlier recorded locations, Hipparchos
finds that there is a uniform shift
from west to east, and recognizes that
the north celestial pole moves in a
slow circle, completing 1 cycle in
26,700 years. This results in the
equinox arriving earlier each year and
is called the "precession of the
equinoxes". Not until Copernicus was
this explained as the slow "wobble" of
the earth, not the movement of the
stars.
[127 BC]
Cleopatra II, her brother Ptolemy VIII
Euergetes II (Greek:
Πτολεμ^
5;ίος
Ευεργέ`
4;ης) (c. 182 BC - 26 June
116 BC), nicknamed Physcon ("Potbelly"
or "Bladder") for his obesity, destroys
much of the city of Alexandria.
Athenaeus will write around 200 CE: "It
appears the scholars of the Museum, the
artists, and even the physicians,
shocked at the horrors and violence
perpetrated, left Alexandria, and that
the islands and mainland of Greece were
filled with refugee grammarians,
philosophers, geometers, musicians,
painters, physicians, and other learned
men, who, obliged by necessity to teach
what they knew, soon became
celebrated." Clearly the Mousaeion
recovers after this.
[120 BC]
voyage from Egypt to India which opens
a new trade route. This happens only
after the Greek people in Alexandria
learn about the timing of the monsoon.
[100 BC]
BCE) is the first philosopher in
Alexandria of record. Antiochus is a
member of the Academy, and teaches
Cicero in Athens. Antiochus is
mentioned in Cicero's "Academica" as a
supporter of the Old Academy, in
opposition to the more skeptical trend
of the Middle and New Academy.
Antiochus tries to blend Plato,
Aristotle and Zeno, and this will
contribute to the rise of neoplatonism.
[100 BC]
establish hospitals (valetudinaria) for
the treatment of their sick and injured
soldiers.
Care of the soldiers is important
because the power of Rome is based on
the legions.
These hospitals are identified only
according to the layout of building
remains, and not by surviving records
or finds of health science tools.
[80 BC]
μηχανι`
3;μός των
Αντικυ_
2;ήρων) used to
display the positions of astronomical
objects (like planets). This is the
oldest analog computer, and
differential gear (links two shafts in
a casing, constraining the sum of the
rotational angles of the shafts to
equal the rotational angle of the
casing) yet found. This object may be
evidence that the sun centered theory
first identified by Aristarcos of Samos
may have been more popular than
previously thought.
[76 BC]
Cicero, Roman politician, and
philosopher writes many works, that
will be preserved by Christians, which
will help to understand the history of
Rome in this time.
[75 BC]
[1] Digital text of the Nine Chapters
on the Mathematical Art. PD
source: http://science.math.ntnu.edu.tw/
ELME/GEO/files/001.jpg
[2] The Nine Chapters on the
Mathematical Art Source:
http://www.chinapage.com/jiuzhang.gif P
D
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:%E4%B9%9D%E7%AB%A0%E7%AE%97%E8%A1%93.
gif
[70 BC]
important Empiricist in the history of
the school practices human anatomy,
develops surgical techniques, while
maintaining the Empiricist experimental
method of curing. He writes a book on
drugs, dietics, and a history of the
Empirical school. Many of these
writing will only reach people of the
future from Arabic translations.
He was the most famous of the Empirical
physicians of his day. He made
experiments on the properties of opium.
[60 BC]
BCE) is a Greek historian, born at
Agyrium in Sicily (now called Agira, in
the Province of Enna).
Diodorus' history,
which he named "Bibliotheca Historia"
("Historical Library"), consistes of
forty books, which were divided into
three sections. The first six books are
geographical in theme, and describe the
history and culture of Egypt (book I),
of Mesopotamia, India, Scythia, and
Arabia (II), of North Africa (III), and
of Greece and Europe (IV - VI). In the
next section (books VII - XVII), he
recounts the history of the World
starting with the Trojan War, down to
the death of Alexander the Great. The
last section (books XVII to the end)
concerns the historical events from the
successors of Alexander down to either
60 BCE or the beginning of Caesar's
Gallic War in 45 BCE. (The end has been
lost, so it is unclear whether Diodorus
reached the beginning of the Gallic War
as he promised at the beginning of his
work or, as evidence suggests, old and
tired from his labors he stopped short
at 60 BCE.)
[60 BC]
as Philo of Alexandria and as Philo
Judeaus, is a Hellenized Jewish
philosopher born in Alexandria, Egypt.
Philo is thought to be the pre-cursor
to the Judeo-Christian school of
thought. Philo Judeaus believes in the
Old Testiment, and studies Greek
philosophy.
Philo's conception of the matter out of
which the world was created is similar
to that of Plato and the Stoics.
According to him, God does not create
the world-stuff, but finds it ready at
hand. God cannot create it, as in its
nature it resists all contact with the
divine. Sometimes, following the
Stoics, he designates God as "the
efficient cause,"and matter as "the
affected cause." He seems to have found
this conception in the Bible (Gen. i.
2) in the image of the spirit of God
hovering over the waters ("De Opificio
Mundi," § 2 ).
Philo, again like Plato and the Stoics,
conceives of matter as having no
attributes or form; this, however, does
not harmonize with the assumption of
four elements. Philo wrongly views
matter as evil, on the ground that no
praise is meted out to it in Genesis
("Quis Rerum Divinarum Heres Sit," §
32 ). As a result, he rejects an actual
Creation, but accepts only a formation
of the world, as Plato holds.
Philo frequently compares God to an
architect or gardener, who formed the
present world (the
κόσμος
ἀισϑητ
72;ς) according to a pattern, the
ideal world
(κόσμος
νοητός).
Philo takes the details of his story of
the Creation entirely from Gen. i. A
specially important position is
assigned here to the Logos, which
executes the several acts of the
Creation, as God cannot come into
contact with matter, actually creating
only the soul of the good.
Philo's works will be enthusiastically
received by early Christians, some of
whom see a Christian in him.
Eusebius will later speculate that the
Therapeutae, the Jewish group of
ascetic hermits in the Egyptian desert
that Philo describes in De vita
contemplativa ("Contemplative Life") is
in fact a Christian group, but being
written in 10 CE they cannot be,
although they may be similar to early
christian monastic groups.
Philo himself claims in his Embassy to
Gaius to have been part of an embassy
sent by the Alexandrian Jews to the
Roman Emperor Gaius. Philo says he was
carrying a petition which described the
sufferings of the Alexandrian Jews, and
which asked the emperor to secure their
rights.
His account of the Creation is almost
identical with that of Plato; he
follows the latter's "Timaeus" closely
in his exposition of the world as
having no beginning and no end. Like
Plato, he places the creative activity
as well as the act of creation outside
of time, on the Platonic ground that
time begins only with the world. The
influence of Pythagorism appears in
number-symbolism, to which Philo
frequently refers.
[56 BC]
light as being made of tiny atoms that
move very fast.
[1] Text copied from: [1] Titus Carus
Lucretius, ''T. Lucreti Cari De rerum
natura libri sex, Volume 1'', 1866,
lines 176-229,
p530 http://books.google.com/books?id=o
iUTAAAAQAAJ PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=oiUTAAAAQAAJ
[2] Lucretius, from
http://www.ironorchid.com/clipart/person
s/images/Lucretius.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/25/Lucretius.jpg
[08/??/55 BC]
[50 BC]
[45 BC]
philosopher) of Augustus in Athens (not
to be confused with Alexandrian
historian Didymus Chalcenterus), writes
a summary (compendium, epitome) of the
four leading philosophic schools, the
Peripatetic, Academic, Stoic, and
Epicurean. Arius Didymus continues the
blending of the major philosophies
started by Antiochus of Ascalon. In
Alexandria this new fusion of
philosophies will result in two major
groups, one which develops within the
religious thought of Jewish and later
Christian philosophers, and the other
formulated by Pagan philosophers.
[45 BC]
Julius Caesar adopts this calendar on
the advice of he astronomer Sosigenes
of Alexandria. This calendar has 365
days divided into 12 months, with a
leap day added to February every four
years. This calendar will last until
1582 when replaced by the Gregorian
calendar.
Caesar changes the previous calendar
which is based on lunar months and the
cycle of Meton to a solar calendar
(like the calendar used in Egypt) based
on 365 day years (plus a 366 day year,
unlike Egypt, every fourth year)
Little is known about Sosigenes. There
are only 2 mentions of him by Pliny the
Elder:
"... There were three main schools,
the Chaldaean, the Egyptian, and the
Greek; and to these a fourth was added
in our country by Caesar during his
dictatorship, who with the assistance
of the learned astronomer Sosigenes
brought the separate years back into
conformity with the course of the
sun."
In Pliny book 2, 8, indicates that
Sosigenes thought that Mercury goes
around the Sun:
(get modern translation)
"Next upon it,
but nothing of that bignesse and
powerful efficacie, is the starre
Mercurie, of some cleped Apollo: in an
inferiour circle hee goeth, after the
like manner, a swifter course by nine
daies: shining sometimes before the
sunne rising, otherwhiles after his
setting, never farther distant from him
than 23 degrees, as both the same
Timæus and Sosigenes doe shew."
[45 BC]
100-44), is declared dictator for life
by the Roman Senate. Some historians
consider this to be the end of the
Roman Republic, a representative
democracy and the start of the Roman
Empire, a monarchy. From this time on,
Julius Caesar's family name "Caeser"
will be used as a title for a supreme
ruler, which is the meaning of the word
"Kaiser" in German, "tsar" in the
Slavonic languages, and "qaysar" in
Arabic languages.
[1] Description: Büste des Gaius
Iulius Caesar PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Giulio-cesare-enhanced_1-800x1450.jpg
[2] Julius Caesar PD
source: http://www4.vjc.edu/ENG36002Sp02
/discuss/msgReader$35
[41 BC]
Chaeronea) in the first century CE, at
this time, Marcus Antonius sends
scrolls from the Pergamum library to
Cleaopatra VII, theoretically to make
good on the loss of scrolls from the
Caesar fire.
Plutarch will write in "Life of
Antony": "Calvisius, who was a
companion of Caesar, brought forward
against Antony the following charges
also regarding his behaviour towards
Cleopatra: he had bestowed upon her the
libraries from Pergamum, in which there
were two hundred thousand volumes;" and
then goes on to write "However, most of
the charges thus brought by Calvisius
were thought to be falsehoods", so this
shipment of books is doubtful. This
claim that Marc Antony sent the
Pergamum library to Clepoatra VII is
evidence, even if untrue, that a
library (although perhaps the Serapeum
or Mousaeion) is still in existence in
the first century CE, which leaves only
the Christian destruction and the
Islamic destruction.
[40 BC]
lift).
[1] Description Nederlands:
Repronegatief. Kintjir of
waterschepwiel in Djambi, Sumatra Date
1914-1921 Source
Tropenmuseum Author
Unknown Permission (Reusing this
file) See below. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c6/COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEU
M_Kintjir_of_waterschepwiel_in_Djambi_Su
matra_TMnr_10007886.jpg
[2] [t Notice that the oxen walk in
circles and there must be some 90
degree gear below deck - an animal
powered boat.] XVth century miniature
of an ox-powered paddle wheel boat from
the 4th century Roman military treatise
De Rebus Bellicis by Anonymous PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c0/De_Rebus_Bellicis%2C_
XVth_Century_Miniature.JPG
[08/01/33 BC]
Στράβω_
7;) (63 BCE/64 BCE - c. 24 AD), a
historian, geographer and philosopher.
Strabo is mostly remembered for his
17-volume work Geographica
("Geography"), which presents a
descriptive history of people and
places from this time. Strabo's
History is nearly completely lost.
Although Strabo quotes it himself, and
other classical authors mention that it
existed, the only surviving document is
a fragment of papyrus now in possession
of the University of Milan.
Strabo lives in Alexandria from 25-20
BCE, and works in the Mousaeion. Strabo
documents q parade from India with
gifts which include a huge snake for
Augustus, then in Samos. Strabo
studies the mystery of why the Nile
River flows from inland to the
Mediterranean Sea, which had baffled
Greek science since Thales and
Herodotus. With no more battles
between Ptolemies, peace results in a
renaissance in Alexandria.
Strabo writes of the Mousaeion in
Alexandria: "The Museum, too, is part
of the royal palace. It comprises the
covered walk, the exedra or portico,
and a great hall in which learned
members of the Museum take their meals
in common. Money, too, is held in
common in this community; (I can't
understand if this means that they
don't have their own money?) they also
have a priest who is head of the
Museum, formerly appointed by the
sovereigns and now appointed by
Augustus." Strabo decribes the "Soma"
(the body), a circular structure,
chosen by Ptolemy I as the site for
Alexander's tomb, which holds bodies of
the Ptolemys too. The Soma is part of
the royal palace. Alexander's body is
still in Alexandria, but not in a
golden but alabaster sarcophagus, as a
result of Ptolemy 'the clandestine'
attempting to profane the tomb. Many
people interpret Strabo not mentioning
the library because it may not be a
separate room or building.
"Strabo" ("squinter") is a term given
by Romans of this time to anyone whose
eyes are distorted or crooked. The
fathers of Julius Caesar and Pompey the
Great were called "Gaius Julius Caesar
Strabo" and "Pompeius Strabo".
[08/01/33 BC]
AD 10), was a Greek scholar and
grammarian who worked in the Mousaeion
in Alexandria and in Rome.
He is chiefly important as having
introduced Alexandrian learning to the
Romans. He was a follower of the school
of Aristarchus, upon whose recension of
Homer he wrote a treatise, fragments of
which have been preserved in the
Venetian scholia. He also wrote
commentaries on many other Greek poets
and prose authors.
Didymus' son Apion, whom Roman Emperor
Tiberius will call 'cymbal of the
world' implying that his fame resounds
everywhere, will write an Egyptian
history, and 'Against the Jews',
reflecting a growing mood of
anti-semitism which Philo deplored, and
which was to lead to the eventual
destruction of the Jewish quarter.
His surname
(meaning brazen-bowelled) came from his
indefatigable industry: he was said to
have written so many books (more than
3,500) that he was unable to recollect
their names.
[33 BC]
writes 17 volumes of geography.
Turkey}
[1] The Greek geographer Strabo in a
16th century engraving. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Strabo.jpg
[09/02/31 BC]
[1] The Battle of Actium, 2 September
31 BC, by Lorenzo A. Castro, painted
1672. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Castro%2C_Battle_of_Actium.jpg
[08/01/30 BC]
marks the official annexation of
Ancient Egypt to the Roman Republic.
[08/01/30 BC]
was a Greek grammarian who lived and
worked in the Mousaeion in Alexandria.
He was a contemporary of Didymus
Chalcenterus.
Tryphon wrote several specialized works
on aspects of language and grammar,
from which only a handful of fragments
now survive. These included treatises
on word-types, dialects, accentuation,
pronunciation, and orthography, as well
as a grammar (Tekhné grammatiké) and
a dictionary. The two extant works that
bear his name, "On Meters" and "On
Tropes", may or may not be by him.
[01/06/27 BC]
(63 BCE - 14 CE) the title "Augustus".
Some historians consider this the end
of the Roman Republic, a representative
democracy, and the Roman Empire, a
monarchy.
[1] Bust of Emperor Augustus. An old,
beginning of the 20th century photo
plate. Digitally cleaned up (both the
photo and the and slightly colored. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Aug11_01.jpg
[2] Description Portrait of Caesar
Augustus. Marble, head: ca. 30-20 BC,
body: middle of the 2nd century
CE. Dimensions H. 1.96 m (6 ft. 5
in.) Credit line Borghese Collection;
purchase, 1807 Accession number Ma
1278 (MR 99) Location Department of
Greek, Etruscan and Roman antiquities,
Denon wing, ground floor, room
23 Photographer/source English
Wikipedia, original upload 4 June 2004
by ChrisO under same filename PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Caesar_augustus.jpg
[27 BC]
("Temple of all the Gods"), is a
building in Rome which is originally
built as a temple to the seven deities
of the seven planets in the state
religion of Ancient Rome. It is the
best-preserved of all Roman buildings
and the oldest important building in
the world with its original roof
intact. It has been in continuous use
throughout its history. Although the
identity of the Pantheon's primary
architect remains uncertain, it is
largely assigned to Apollodorus of
Damascus. The Pantheon will be
destroyed in 80 CE, but rebuilt by
Hadrian in 125 CE. In 609 the Byzantine
emperor Phocas will give the building
to Pope Boniface IV, who will
reconsecrate it as a Christian church,
the Church of Mary and all the Martyr
Saints, which title it still retains.
[1] An image of Pantheon in Rome,
Italy. Image taken by Martin Olsson
(mnemo on wikipedia and commons,
martin@minimum.se), 2nd of May 2005.
GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Pantheon_rome_2005may.jpg
[8 BC]
writing, has at least 20 ancient
Chinese characters in an ancient
garrison near the Yumen Pass at
Dunhuang in northwest China used during
the Western Han Dynesty (206 BCE-25
CE).
This is more than 100 years before Tsai
Lun, the person traditionally thought
to have invented paper.
China
[0 AD]
plane.
[1] Drawing of Artificial Muscle
Flapping Plane ''Aves Planus'' by Ted
Huntington Other possible
names: Ptero-planus Muscle
Plane Ptero-soar GNU
source: Ted Huntington
[08/01/20 AD]
who lives during the reigns of Augustus
and Tiberius, and teaches in Rome,
writes a book on the Mousaeion that
would probably give a good description
and perhaps explain the origins of the
Mouseion, but has not yet been found.
[20 AD]
Galilee), probably a monotheist
believer in Judaism lives in this time.
Jesus leaves no writings, and the
earliest record of Jesus' life is
recorded in the sayings of the "Gospel
Q", a number of saying attributed to
Jesus similar to those found in the
Gospel of Thomas. Some scholars
characterize Jesus from these earliest
sayings as being Cynic-like, similar to
Diogenes of Sinope, living voluntarily
in poverty, begging, criticizing
conventional values and wealth,
speaking boldly, engaging in
troublesome public behavior, etc. In
addition, there is an element of belief
and focus on a God. The traditional
belief by many scholars has been that
Jesus was killed as the four main
gospels of the New Testament state,
however, others argue that the idea
that Jesus was killed will be created
by the author of the Mark gospel around
80 CE.
Followers of Jesus will go on to
form one of the largest religions on
earth, Christianity which will last for
more than 2000 years. Shockingly, the
popularity of this average preacher of
Judaism, believed to be unfairly killed
like many trillions of humans
throughout the history of earth, will
grow to dominate much of the earth,
replacing the older polytheistic
religion of Greece and Rome. The rise
of the Christian religion, with violent
intolerant conformity, will terribly
slow the tradition of science growing
on earth. Christians will destroy,
close or take over all the
non-Christian libraries and schools,
destroying many valuable books of
tremendous scientific and historical
value. The rise of Christianity will
also slow the natural development of
atheism, the new religious fanatacism
being more intolerant of atheism than
the older polytheism/paganism, although
clearly the persecution of Anaxagoras
and Socrates for atheism is evidence of
a continuous intolerance of those who
reject the claims of religions.
[1] Mural painting from the catacomb of
Commodilla. Bust of Christ. This is one
of first bearded images of Christ,
during the 4th century Jesus was
beginning to be depicted as older and
bearded, in contrast to earlier
Christian art, which usually showed a
young and clean-shaven Jesus. *
Date: Late 4th century *
Commodilla catacombs Christ from
http://drwagnernet.com/40a/lecture-view.
cfm?lecture=5&image=10 Cristo barbato
(dettaglio), affresco 60x72, fine
IV-inizio V secolo, Catacombe di
Commodilla, Roma PD
source: http://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki
/Image:Christ_with_beard.jpg
[2] This image of what Jesus may have
looked like is on the cover of Popular
Mechanics this month. Israeli and
British forensic anthropologists and
computer programmers got together to
create the face featured in the
1.2-million circulation magazine [t
knowing the dishonesty of Popular
Mechanics' 9/11 ''debunking'', I have
serious doubts about anything they
funded, but I don't see a head like
this as being unlikely. Roman
depictions have no beard until later,
would beard not be
longer?] COPYRIGHTED
source: http://archives.cnn.com/2002/TEC
H/science/12/25/face.jesus/
[40 AD]
Alexandria by Saint Mark the
Evangelist. Initially mostly believers
in Judeism convert to Christianity.
[41 AD]
alongside the old one in Alexandria
from 41-54 CE.
[43 AD]
geographer, makes a small book (less
than 100 pages), a compilation of
geography, "De situ orbis libri III"
for popular reading by humans in Rome.
Except for Pliny this is the only
existing book on geography written in
classic Latin. Mela copies the Greek
geographers that went before him. Mela
divides the earth in to 5 zones, North
Frigid, North Temperate, Torrid, South
Temperate and South Frigid. Mela
incorrectly believes that only the
temperate zones are livable in, and
also incorrectly believes that the
torrid zone was too hot to be passed by
humans to the South Temperate zone.
In
western Europe his knowledge (as was
natural in a Spanish subject of
Imperial Rome) was somewhat in advance
of the Greek geographers. He defines
the western coast-line of Spain and
Gaul and its indentation by the Bay of
Biscay more accurately than
Eratosthenes or Strabo, his ideas of
the British Isles and their position
are also clearer than his
predecessors.
The first edition of Mela was published
at Milan in 1471.
[50 AD]
Heron of Alexandria (Greek:
Ήρων ο Αλεξανδρεύς) (CE
c10-c70), makes the first recorded
steam engine.
[1] Hero's aeolipile From Knight's
American Mechanical Dictionary, 1876.
PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Aeolipile_illustration.JPG
[2] Heron's formula can also be
written this way. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Her
on%27s_formula
[50 AD]
Museum built next to the original
Museum.
[62 AD]
Alexandria, twenty-two years after
arriving. His remains will be stolen by
Venetian merchents and brought to
Venice, of which St. Mark will be the
patron saint, commemorated and entombed
in the great cathedral named after him.
[75 AD]
ending 3000 years of cuneiform
writing.
Cuneiform is replaced by Aramaic.
Legal, literary and astronomical texts
are the last written in cuneiform.
[77 AD]
"Natural History".
[1] Contemporary laced limp parchment
wrapper made from a bifolium of a 14th
century [?] Italian missal, rubricated,
red and blue initials. Binding for:
Francesco Massari, … In nonum Plinii
de naturali historia librum
castigationes & annotationes. Basel:
Froben, 1537. (ExRockey) 2008-0021N •
Massari (fl. 1530), a Venetian
physician, comments on the ninth book
of the Natural History of Pliny (1st
cent. AD), covering fish and marine
life. The work’s editor, Beatus
Rhenanus (1485-1547), stated that
Massari’s comments were based on his
extensive voyages and observations in
the Mediterranean and Adriatic. PD
source: http://blogs.princeton.edu/rareb
ooks/Massari-wrapper.JPG
[2] MS1000 The Pliny of Saint James in
the March: Historia Naturalis Italy
c1400 PD
source: http://www.schoyencollection.com
/lexical_files/ms1000.jpg
[80 AD]
and drugs.
[1] Dioscorides from www.nlm.nih.gov PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Dioscorides.jpg
[2] Dioscorides: Materia Medica.
(Arabic copy) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Arabic_herbal_medicine_guidebook.jpeg
[81 AD]
starts his reign with an effort to
"rebuild the libraries that had been
burned" {in the fire under Nero}, "had
the whole empire searched for copies of
works that had disappeared", and "sent
emissaries to Alexandria charged with
copying and correcting the texts" {yet
more evidence that the royal library in
Alexandria is intact at this time}
[83 AD]
[1] Figure from: Joseph Needham,
''Science and Civilization in China'',
vol 4, part 1, 1962,
p230-268. {Needham_China_compass_1962.p
df} COPYRIGHTED
source: Joseph Needham, "Science and
Civilization in China", vol 4, part 1,
1962,
p230-268. {Needham_China_compass_1962.p
df}
[2] ''The south-pointing fish'' was
recorded in the documents of the
Northern Song Dynasty. Such
direction-pointing device is a thin
steel plate cut into the shape of a
fish magnetized in the geomagnetic
field. The tail of the fish is
magnetized in the geological direction
of the North Pole, thus the tail has
the south magnetic pole and the head of
the fish has the north magnetic pole.
When put into the water, the floating
fish has its head pointing to the
south. UNKNOWN
source: http://kaleidoscope.cultural-chi
na.com/chinaWH/images/exbig_images/3ee20
b9ad9430ca4fcd43b3165a315c5.jpg
[97 AD]
(FroNTInuS) (30 CE - 104 CE), a Roman
soldier, politician, engineer and
author, is put in charge of water
system of Rome by Emperor Nerva.
Frontinus writes a two volume work, "De
aquis urbis Romae" containing a history
and description of the water supply
system (aquaducts) of Rome. In his
writing Frontius boasts how the Roman
aquaducts are better than those of
Egypt and Greece.
[100 AD]
composition, including musical notation
(Epitaph of Seikilos).
[1] Seikilos søjlen Seikilos Epitaph
(200 f.Kr.) οσον ζης,
φαίνου (oson zis,
fainou) μηδέν ‘ολως
συλυπού (miden olos
silittou) προς ολίγον
εσtί to ζην, (pros oligon esti to
zin,) το τέλος ο χρόνος
απαιτεί (to telos o chronos
apeti) Skjul ikke dit lys så længe
du lever, Sørg aldrig helt til
bunds, Livet løber kun en kort
stund, Tiden sætter en fast
fermin (Oversættelse, Carsten
Høeg) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.natmus.dk/graphics/Pr
essefoto/antik/seikilos.jpg
[2] Seiklos inscription UNKNOWN
source: http://www.geoffknorr.com/image/
images/Seikilos_Inscription.svg.png
[01/01/120 AD]
will write (between 230 and 238) that
"Great honors were paid to {Dionysius
of Miletus, a contemporary philosopher}
by the cities that admired his talent,
but the greatest was from the Emperor.
For Hadrian (January 24, 76 CE - July
10, 138 CE, Roman emperor 117-138)
appointed him satrap {prefect} over
peoples by no means obscure, and
enrolled him in the order of the
knights and among those who had free
meals in the Museum. (By the Museum I
mean a dinning-table in Egypt to which
are invited the most distinguished men
of all countries.)" Philostratos also
describes membership into the Mouseion,
granted by the emperor Hadrian, for
Polemo, another philosopher, writing:
"...and Hadrian ... also enrolled
{Polemo} in the circle of the Museum,
with the Egyptian right of free meals."
Clearly, this is evidence that the
Mouseion was still functioning as usual
after the Cesar fire, and likely up to
the time of this writing (c230), since
there is no mention of a later
destruction of the Mouseion. In
addition to indicating that these meals
may have been quite expensive to be a
privilege that might be appointed by a
Roman Emperor. The "free meals" are
clearly of note in the memory of
Philostratus.
[130 AD]
Ptolomy.
Alexandria
[1] Engraving of a crowned Ptolemy
being guided by the muse Astronomy,
from Margarita Philosophica by Gregor
Reisch, 1508. Although Abu Ma'shar
believed Ptolemy to be one of the
Ptolemies who ruled Egypt after the
conquest of Alexander the title ‘King
Ptolemy’ is generally viewed as a
mark of respect for Ptolemy's elevated
standing in science. Summary An
early Baroque artist's rendition of
Claudius Ptolemaeus (Greek:
Κλαύδιος Πτολεμαῖος
Klaúdios Ptolemaîos; c. AD 90 – c.
168), known in English as Ptolemy , was
a Roman citizen of Egypt who wrote in
Greek. He was a mathematician,
astronomer, geographer, astrologer and
a poet of a single epigram in the Greek
Anthology. He lived in Egypt under
Roman rule, and is believed to have
been born in the town of Ptolemais
Hermiou in the Thebaid. He died in
Alexandria around AD 168. Ptolemy was
the author of several scientific
treatises, at least three of which were
of continuing importance to later
Islamic and European science. The first
is the astronomical treatise now known
as the Almagest (in Greek, Ἡ
Μεγάλη Σύνταξις, ''The
Great Treatise'', originally
Μαθηματικὴ Σύνταξις,
''Mathematical Treatise''). The second
is the Geography, which is a thorough
discussion of the geographic knowledge
of the Greco-Roman world. The third is
the astrological treatise known
sometimes in Greek as the
Apotelesmatika
(Ἀποτελεσματικά), more
commonly in Greek as the Tetrabiblos
(Τετράβιβλος ''Four
books''), and in Latin as the
Quadripartitum (or four books) in which
he attempted to adapt horoscopic
astrology to the Aristotelian natural
philosophy of his day. Uploaded on
en:wiki by en:User:Tuckerresearch. It
is under public domain because it comes
from an old manuscript. PD
source: http://www.astronomie.de/typo3te
mp/pics/fa4e97de5a.jpg
[2] surviving works; only a few brief
and unsupported biographical statements
are made by much later sources.
'Claudius' suggests he held Roman
citizenship, 'Ptolemy' that he was of
Greek descent and lived in Egypt. The
astronomical observations that he
listed as having himself made cover the
period 127-141 AD, from which it may be
inferred that he was active in the
first and into the second half of the
second century AD, and all of those
observations are listed as made in
Alexandria, so it is likely that he
lived in or near that city, still a
great centre of learning at that time.
In the Middle Ages, before the twelfth
century, when his work was being
discovered and studied in detail by
Islamic scholars, little more than his
name was remembered in the Latin West;
as early as the Encyclopedia of Isidore
of Description English: Sixteenth
century engraving of Claudius Ptolemy
(AD c100-170) being guided by the muse
Astronomy - Margarita Philosophica by
Gregor Reisch, published in
1508. Date 28 June
2011 Source magazine Author Traditiona
L aSTROLOGER PD
source: http://www.hps.cam.ac.uk/starry/
ptolemylrg.jpg
[150 AD]
Κλαύδι_
9;ς
Πτολεμ^
5;ῖος), (c.90 - c.168)
writes "Mathematike Syntaxis ("The
Mathematical Arrangement") which
supports an Earth-centered cosmology.
Ptolemy,
(ToLomE), Claudius Ptolemaeus, (Greek:
Κλαύδι_
9;ς
Πτολεμ^
5;ῖος), (c.90 - c.168),
a Greek-speaking Astronomer, Geographer
and Astrologer, in the Museum in
Alexandria, writes an astronomy book
"Mathematike Syntaxis ("The
Mathematical Arrangement"), called by
later people "Almagest" (The Greatest),
in which Ptolemy names the 48
constellations still used today, and
also includes a star catalog (star
names and locations) based on the work
of Hipparchus. Sadly Ptolemy supports
the erroneous earth-centered theory and
this theory will persist until
Copernicus in the 1500s. Ptolemy writes
a book on optics that describes
refraction, reflection and color of
light, and a book on geography.
[03/31/173 AD]
himself as "ex-vice librarian and
member of the Museum" which shows the
Mousaeion in Alexandria still has
members.
[03/31/180 AD]
Christian (catechetical) school in
Alexandria from 180-200 CE. He teaches
Clement. This school claims as its
founder the Evangelist St Mark.
Christianity is now a powerful
movement, whose danger is felt by the
Imperial government. Christian people
now have their own teachers and school
in Alexandria in competition with the
Mouseion school of philosophy,
associated with the traditional
Hellenic and Roman polytheistic
religion.
[200 AD]
as head of the Christian school in
Alexandria. Clement is born in Athens
to Pagan parents and is the teacher of
Origen.
[200 AD]
this time, the Gnostic people are a
monotheistic leaning group opposed to
traditional Paganism. This group will
eventually turn into mystic Christians.
[200 AD]
[1] Rubbing of the top panel of the
Nestorial Tablet Dated 781 CE, Tang
dynasty Ink rubbing on paper 52.23 x
31.91 cm Acquisition numbers:
#92.78.1 Gift of James K.
Penfield Image from Seattle Art
Museum PD
source: http://depts.washington.edu/silk
road/exhibit/religion/nestorians/images/
92_78_1.jpg
[202 AD]
[03/07/203 AD]
murdered in Carthage.
[03/07/203 AD]
(catechetical) school in Alexandria,
whose last teacher Clement was
apparently driven out by persecution.
Origen, in the Alexandrian style of
textual criticism, compares various
versions of the old testaments,
followed by a study of the new
testament. He claims that the
scriptures have three senses, the
literal, moral and spiritual, which he
compares to the body, (and the backward
ancient theories of) soul and spirit.
The Neoplatonists also have a mystic
three part philosophy of being. Nepos,
the bishop of Aesinoite criticizes this
abstract approach and advocates a
literal interpretation of the Bible (in
other words that every story in the
Bible actually happened and is
literally true), but the Bishop of
Alexandria, Dionysius follows Origen's
method.
[215 AD]
Alexandria youth and punishes the
Mousaeion.
Gibbon writes "from a secure post in
the Temple of Serapis, {Caracalla}
viewed and directed the slaughter of
many thousand citizens, as well as
strangers...". After the massacre,
Caracalla stops the public games and
abolishs funding and stipends of
members (called "syssitia", the public
subsidy given for the maintenance of
scholars at the Museum) and expels all
foreign members of the Mousaeion.
[232 AD]
confused with Ammonius of Alexandria,
the Christian philosopher), often
called the founder of the neoplatonic
school, teaches Platonic philosophy at
Alexandria from 232-243 CE. Ammonius
teaches Plotinus and Origen.
Ammianus writes
that Alexandria "now lost the quarter
called Bruchion which had long been the
dwelling of the foremost men".
[245 AD]
Πλωτίν_
9;ς)(c.205 Lycopolis, Upper
Egypt-270), thought by many to be
(along with Ammonius Saccas) the father
of Neoplatonism, teacher of
Neo-Platonism, the last phase of
ancient philosophy, writes 9 books
called "Enneades". Plotinus views a
dual nature of the universe based on a
sharp contrast between reason and
matter, believing in a God as
indivisible and an absolute one, in
"evil" matter and in "non-evil" matter.
The allowance of "non-evil matter" is
opposed to the anti-nature view of the
early christians. As a Pagan person
clearly the one God idea is clear in
Plotinus' description of a God as an
absolute one. His
(scientifically-useless) metaphysical
writings will inspire centuries of
Christian, Jewish, Muslim, and Gnostic
metaphysicians and mystics.
Asimov writes that Plotinus is a Roman
philosopher who modifies the system of
Plato, adding mysticism in order to
compete with eastern religions, gaining
popularity in Rome at this time.
[250 AD]
Διόφαν`
4;ος ὁ
Ἀλεξαν
48;ρεύς) (c.210 CE
- c.290 CE), a mathematician working in
the Museum in Alexandria, uses
equations with variables that must be
integers. These equations will come to
be called "Diophantine equations",
named after Diofantos.
Diofantos' most famous work is the
"Arithmetica" originally thirteen Greek
books, of which only six survive today
in Greek manuscripts.
Diophantus also wrote a treatise on
polygonal numbers, of which part
survives.
The "editio princeps" of Diofantos will
be published in 1575 by Xylander, and
editions of Arithmetica will exert a
profound influence on the development
of algebra in Europe in the late
sixteenth through eighteenth centuries.
[1] Work by Diophantus (died in about
280 B.C.), translated from Greek into
Latin by Claude Gaspard Bachet de
Méziriac. This edition of the book was
published in 1621. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Diophantus-cover.jpg
[2] Work by Diophantus (died in about
280 B.C.), with additions by Pierre de
Fermat (died in 1665). This edition of
the book was published in 1670. p. 61
contains Diophantus' problem II.VIII,
with the famous note added by Fermat
which became known as Fermat's last
theorem. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Diophantus-II-8-Fermat.jpg
[267 AD]
among the first of the major libraries
to be attacked. Hadrian's Library is
destroyed by the Herulians (also called
Heruli, nomatic Germanic people), who
encountered little resistance.
[290 AD]
Panopolis {now Akhmim}, Egypt - ?), is
a Greek alchemist who summarizes 300
hundred writings on alchemy, the
beginnings of Chemistry, in an
encyclopedia of 28 books. The books
contain a majority of mysticism.
Zosimus may have been aware of arsenic,
describes the forming of lead acetate,
and the sweet taste of lead acetate.
The 4 element (fire, air, earth, water)
Greek theory will last until
Lavoisier.
Zosimus related the story of the first
alchemist, Chemes, who wrote the
teachings of the fallen angels
(supposedly angels who fell to earth in
order to seduce human women) in a book
called Chema. "Chemia" (Greek
χημεία)
is the Greek word for chemistry, to
which the Arabs added the article, al
for "alchemy", from their own language.
[297 AD]
Alexandria, appearing in person, and
many citizens are brutally slaughtered.
Men of learning are not spared, and
their books, in particular those on
alchemy, are collected and burnt. Soon
after this time the largest persecution
of the Christians begins.
[303 AD]
[305 AD]
called the Meletian schism, concerning
the treatment of those people who have
lapsed in church discipline (the
lapsi). Peter, the Bishop of
Alexandria, represents the more
tolerant view, Meletius, Bishop of
Lycopolis (assiut), the more rigid
school. This division centers on the
amount of time until a person is
re-admited and then their status after
being readmited. This tolerant and
ridgid division will last for many
years. Another issue of conflict is
whether to include ancient Greek
learning in basic education or to only
strictly teach a purely Christian
course.
[315 AD]
will note later in his "Prosgymnasmata"
that although a library still exists in
the Serapeum complex, only those
alcoves containing philosophical works
were accessible, and the stacks
associated with the cult of pagan
deities had been closed.
[319 AD]
the "Arian Heresy", the claim that "If
the Father gave birth to the Son, He
was born has an origin of existence.
Therefore once the Son was not.
Therefore he is created out of
nothing." This simple theory will lead
to the Council of Nicaea.
[320 AD]
Πάππος)
(Pappus) (c.290 CE Alexandria - ??
c.350 CE Alexandria) is one of the most
important Hellenistic mathematicians of
this time, known for his work
"Synagoge" or "Collection" (written
c.340). Pappos is a Hellenized Egyptian
born in Alexandria, Egypt. Although
very little is known about his life,
the written records suggest he is a
teacher.
"Synagoge", his best-known work,
(thought to be written around 340) is a
compendium of Greek mathematics in
eight volumes, the first volume is
missing while the other 7 volumes have
missing parts. "Synagoge" (means
"Collection") covers a wide range of
topics, including geometry,
recreational mathematics, doubling the
cube, polygons and polyhedra (three
dimensional shapes made of a finite
number of polygons). Pappus writes in
detail on the astronomical system
credited to Ptolomy.
Pappos is a likely a member of the
Mouseion with access to many works, and
in his own work "Synagoge" in which he
outlines the history of the Mouseion
and its scientists {check}.
[07/??/325 AD]
Council of the Church to meet at Nicaea
in Bithynia. This is the first General
Council ever to be held by the
Christian Church. The Council is
attended by 300 bishops and lasts for
two months. Arius attends and repeats
his doctrine of the Son of God was
created from nothing, the He was
capable both of holiness and sin, but
had chosen holiness, and that He was a
creature of God, and the work of the
Father. But the bishops, interested in
keeping the Church united, decides that
Jesus was a part of God, made of the
same material, saying "one Lord Jesus
Christ, the only begotten Son of God,
begotten of the substance of the
Father, God of God, Light of Light,
Very God of Very God, begotten not
made, cosubstantial with the Father."
Only two bishops and Arius dissent and
all 3 are excommunicated. They condemn
Arius and adopt this view refered to as
the "Nicene Creed".
[340 AD]
403 CE) is a Church Father, and a
strong defender of orthodoxy, known for
tracking down deviant teachings
(heresies) wherever they could be
traced, during the troubled era in the
Christian Church following the Council
of Nicaea.
[357 AD]
Library in Byzantium. Themistius, a
Pagan Roman Senator praises
Constantius' initiative to found this
library.
[06/26/363 AD]
(Greek:
Ιουλια_
7;ός o
Παραβά`
4;ης; 331-June 26, 363) dies
as a result of a spear wound. Julian
will be the last "Pagan" (or believer
in Hellenic religion) Emperor. After
Julian, there will be little protection
for the Libraries in Alexandria, Greece
and the rest of the Roman Empire which
are stored in temples dedicated to the
traditional Greek Gods.
[363 AD]
Antioch - c393), Roman soldier and
historian writes about Alexandria:
"There are besides in the city temples
pompous with lofty roofs, conspicuous
among them the Serapeum, which, though
feeble words merely belittle it, yet is
so adorned with extensive columned
halls, with almost breathing statues,
and a great number of other works of
art, that next to the Capitolium, with
which revered Rome elevates herself to
eternity, the whole world beholds
nothing more magnificent. In this were
invaluable libraries, and the unanimous
testimony of ancient records declares
that 700,000 volumes {voluminum},
brought together by the unremitting
energy of the Ptolemaic kings, were
burned in the Alexandrine war, when the
city was sacked under the dictator
Caesar {Rolfe comments that 'Ammonius
confuses two libraries, that of the
Bruchion and that of the Serapeum. The
former was founded by Ptolemy Soter
(322-282 BCE) and in the time of
Callimachus contained 400,000 volumes;
the Serapeum, founded by Ptolemy
Philadelphus (285-247 BCE), contained
42,800. At the time of the battle of
Pharsalia the total number was 532,800
and it may have reached 700,000 by the
time of the Alexandrine war. One rumor
reported by Plutarch relates how Antony
gave Cleopatra 200,000 volumes that had
been collected at Pergamum.}
{Ammianus continues}
...
But Alexandria herself, not gradually
(like other cities), but at her very
origin, attained her wide extent; and
for a long time she was greviously
troubled by internal dissensions, until
at last, many years later under the
rule of Aurelian {in 272 CE}, the
quarrels of the citizens turned into
deadly strife; then her walls were
destroyed and she lost the greater part
of the district called the Bruchion {at
least a fourth of the city and contains
the royal palace}, which had long been
the abode of distinguished men. From
there came Aristarchus, eminent in
thorny problems of grammatical lore,
and Herodian, a most accurate
investigator in science and Saccas
Ammonius, the teacher of Plotinus, and
numerous other writers in many famous
branches of literature. Among these
Didymus Chalcenterus {means of brazen
guts, for his tireless industry} was
conspicuous for the abundance of his
diversified knowledge, although in
those six books in which he sometimes
unsuccessfully criticises Cicero,
imitating the scurrilous writers of
Silli {Satirical poems}, he makes the
same impression on learned ears as a
puppy-dog barking from a distance with
quavering voice around a lion roaring
awfully. And although very many writers
flourished in early times as well as
these whom I have mentioned,
nevertheless not even today is learning
of various kinds silent in that same
city; for the teachers of the arts show
signs of life, and the geometrical
measuring-rod brings to light whatever
is concealed, the stream of music is
not yet wholly dried up among them,
harmony is not reduced to silence, the
consideration of the motion of the
universe and of the stars is still kept
warm with some, few though they be, and
there are others who are skilled in
numbers; and a few besides are versed
in the knowledge which reveals the
course of the fates. Moreover, studies
in the art of healing, whose help is
often required in this life of ours,
which is neither frugal nor sober, are
so enriched from day to day, that
although a physician's work itself
indicates it, yet in place of every
testimony it is enough to commend his
knowledge of the art, if he has said
that he was trained in Alexandria. But
enough on this point. If one wishes to
investigate with attentive mind the
many publications on the knowledge of
the divine, and the origin of
divination, he will find that learning
of this kind has been spread abroad
from Egypt through the whole world.
There, for the first time, long before
other men, they discovered the cradles,
so to speak, of the various religions,
and now carefully guard the first
beginnings of worship, stored up in
secret writings. Trained in this
wisdom, Pythagoras, secretly honoring
the gods, made whatever he said or
believed recognized authority, and
often showed his golden thigh at
Olympia {wishing to represent himself
as the equal of Apollo}, and let
himself be seen from time to time
talking with an eagle. From here
Anaxagoras foretold a rain of stones,
and by handling mud from a well
predicted an earthquake. Solon, too,
aided by the opinions of the Egyptian
priests, passed laws in accordance with
the measure of justice, and thus gave
also to Roman law its greatest support
{Herodotus 1,30 states Solon went to
Egypt after making laws, see also
Aristotle "Constitution of Athens". The
Romans are said to have made use of
Solon's code in compiling the XII
Tables}. On this source, Plato drew
and after visiting Egypt, traversed
higher regions {of thought}, and
rivaled Jupiter in lofty language,
gloriously serving in the field of
wisdom." (Again. for me, it is unusual
that Plato is so revered, for a person
having no significant scientific
contributions. Perhaps once the
celebrity of Plato was established, his
fame and name recognition overcame any
criticism or doubts about the value of
Plato's contribution to science and
knowledge.)
[364 AD]
even Rome is virtually devoid of books.
All libraries in Rome are closed.
Ammianus Marcellinus relates that there
are certain people in Rome who 'hated
learning like poison', and "libraries
were closed for ever like tombs"
[364 AD]
of the Trajanum Temple in Antioch
burned.
[366 AD]
Alexandria with a library is plundered
and destroyed by Christian people.
[370 AD]
Caesarea, (CE c330-379) (Greek:
Άγιος
Βασίλε_
3;ος ο
Μέγας), Bishop
of Caesarea, establishes a religious
foundation that includes a hospital, an
isolation unit for those suffering from
leprosy, and buildings to house the
poor, the elderly, and the sick.
Following this example similar
hospitals will be built in the eastern
part of the Roman Empire.
[1] Archbishop of Caesarea in
Cappadocia PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:BASIL.jpg
[375 AD]
visit the Serapeum a few years before
it's destruction, mentions the
storerooms for books attached to the
colonnades (rows of columns), and
claims that the books were open to all
who desired to study, and attracted the
whole city to master wisdom.
[375 AD]
Alexandria: "The city lost the greater
part of the Brucheion which was the
residence of the most distinguished
men" and "Even now in that city the
various branches of learning make their
voices heard: for the teachers of the
arts are still alive, the geometer's
rod reveals hidden knowledge, the study
of music has not yet completely dried
up there, harmony has not been silenced
and some few still keep the fires
burning in the study of the movement of
the earth and stars in addition to them
there are a few men learned in the
science which reveals the ways of fate.
But the study of medicine...grows
greater from day to day."
[380 AD]
last recorded scholar-member of the
Mouseion in Alexandria.
[386 AD]
Alexandria almost deserted and the
center of city life conglomerates in
the Egyptian quarter around the
Serapeum. The royal quarter has become
"a site near Alexandria called
Kourchon" (i.e. Brucheion).
[389 AD]
379-395 CE) releases a series of
decrees which declare among other
things that any Pagan feast that has
not yet been transfered to a Christian
feast is now to be a workday.
[391 AD]
all non-Christian temples closed.
[391 AD]
Serapeion) destroyed.
[1] Description Theophilus and the
Serapeum. Bishop Theophilus of
Alexandria, en:Gospel book in hand,
stands triumphantly atop the
en:Serapeum in en:391. The cult image
of en:Serapis, crowned with the
en:modius, is visible within the temple
at the bottom. Marginal illustration
from a chronicle written in Alexandria
in the early fifth century, thus
providing a nearly contemporary
portrait of Theophilus. P. Goleniscev 6
verso. (From A. Bauer and J.
Strygowski, ''Eine alexandrinische
Weltchronik,'' Denkschriften der
Kaiserlichen Akademie der
Wissenschaften: Wien 51.2 [en:1906]:
1-204, fig. 6 verso) Date 2002-11-10
(first version); 2004-05-14 (last
version) Source Originally from
en.wikipedia; description page is/was
here. Author Original uploader was
Eloquence at en.wikipedia Later
versions were uploaded by Hephaestos at
en.wikipedia. Permission (Reusing
this file) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/34/Theophil.jpg
[2] Serapeum Temple which housed the
''daughter library'' of the Library of
Alexandria. Source
www.alexandrinelibrarian.blogspot.com U
NKNOWN
source: http://3.bp.blogspot.com/_KQyC59
HU4I0/SrRlFDYM2iI/AAAAAAAAAC4/fmxC6-MP49
U/s320/Serapis_Temple02.jpg
[400 AD]
temples in Alexandria as "scattered to
the winds" in terms of cult
ceremonies.
Around this time Orosius reports that
Christians have already plundered the
contents of Alexandrian libraries.
Copy
ing and preservation by Christians of
only those philosophical treatises that
do not go against their religious
beliefs contribute to the loss of
thousands of manuscripts.
[400 AD]
Indian mathematics text, is one of the
earliest records of the use of the
number zero and negative numbers.
[1] The Nine Chapters on the
Mathematical Art Source:
http://www.chinapage.com/jiuzhang.gif P
D
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:%E4%B9%9D%E7%AB%A0%E7%AE%97%E8%A1%93.
gif
[400 AD]
Mayan people independently of Asia.
This
paper is called "Amatl" and is made by
boiling the inner bark of several
species of fig trees (genus Ficus) and
pounding the resulting fibers with a
stone (and allowed to dry). The paper
is light brown with corrugated lines,
is stretchy and delicate.
[1] Part of the Huexotzinco Codex,
printed on amatl Source URL:
http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/treasures/tr
t045.html Image made in 1531 by Nahua
Indians in legal case in Mexico and
Spain against Spanish administrators
who abused them. The Indians were part
of the Cortes estate. Cortes was a
co-plantiff against the administrators
who mismanaged his estate. Image taken
form a Library of Congress page. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Huex_codex_1a_loc.jpg
[10/15/412 AD]
by his nephew Cyril. Theophilus is
refered to as the "church's pharaoh".
Theophilus's harsh and authoritarian
conduct provokes anger among
Alexandrian Pagan people, monks of the
desert Nitria, the Bishop of
Constantinople, John Chrysostom, and
from various Christian groups in the
East.
Church historians of today express
great respect for Cyril, but his
contemporaries view Cyril differently
describing him as impetuous (in other
words forcefully impulsive), and
power-hungry. Cyril arouses strong
opposition in Egypt. There are three
days of fighting between supporters of
Timothy, Theophilus' archdeacon, and
supporters of Cyril.
[10/17/412 AD]
(Κυρίλλ
59;υ) win the three day battle and
Cyril is bishop.
Socrates Scholasticus, a Christian
historian, alive at this time, writes:
"Cyril
succeeds Theophilus Bishop of
Alexandria.
Shortly afterwards Theophilus bishop of
Alexandria having fallen into a
lethargic state, died on the 15th of
October,19 in the ninth consulate of
Honorius, and the fifth of Theodosius.
A great contest immediately arose about
the appointment of a successor, some
seeking to place Timothy the archdeacon
in the episcopal chair; and others
desiring Cyril, who was a nephew of
Theophilus. A tumult having arisen on
this account among the people,
Abundantius, the commander of the
troops in Egypt, took sides with
Timothy. (Yet the partisans of Cyril
triumphed.)20 Whereupon on the third
day after the death of Theophilus,
Cyril came into possession of the
episcopate, with greater power than
Theophilus had ever exercised. For from
that time the bishopric of Alexandria
went beyond the limits of its
sacerdotal functions, and assumed the
administration of secular matters.21
Cyril immediately therefore shut up the
churches of the Novatians at
Alexandria, and took possession of all
their consecrated vessels and
ornaments; and then stripped their
bishop Theopemptus of all that he had."
[03/??/415 AD]
Υπατία and Ὑπατίας) (CE
c360-415).
) Alexandria, Egypt
[1] Hypatia of Alexandria, aka the
''Pagan Scholar'' Cheered for
inventing the plane astrolabe, 1
Hypatia was slaughtered by Christian
monks in AD 415. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.dctc.edu/assets/pics/
spring-2010/hypatia.jpg
[2] Hypatia was a mathematician,
astronomer, teacher, editor, inventor,
musician, and author. In March, 415
A.D. she was murdered by a mob of
fanatics on the steps of a church
called The Caesarium in Alexandria,
Egypt. She has become a symbol of
martryed Reason, feminism, and
Classical paganism. UNKNOWN
source: http://cosmographica.com/alexand
ria/images/hypatia_portrait_large.jpg
[416 AD]
[423 AD]
of their final edicts (CTh. XVI.10.22)
regarding pagans, they remark that "We
now believe that there are none." This
is solid evidence that all pagan
temples are destroyed.
[439 AD]
Constantinople - ~450 CE) completes his
"Historia Ecclesiatica" (Church
History), a history that covers 305-439
CE.
Socrates expresses an issue of conflict
in the new rising Christian religion:
whether to include ancient Greek
learning in basic education or to only
strictly teach a purely Christian
course. In his history, Socrates
identifies the common belief that "the
education of the Christians in the
philosophy of the heathens, in which
there is constant assertion of
Polytheism, instead of being conducive
to the promotion of true religion, is
rather to be deprecated as subversive
of it." Socrates then goes on to reject
this claim writing "First, Greek
learning was never recognized by either
Christ or his apostles as divinely
inspired nor, on the other hand, was it
wholly rejected as pernicious. Second,
there are many philosophers among the
Greeks who were not far from the
knowledge of God. Third, the divinely
inspired scriptures undoubtably
inculcate {implant,teach} doctrines
that are both admirable in themselves
and heavenly in character; they also
eminently tend to produce piety and
integrity of life in those who are
guided by their precepts...But they do
not instruct us in the art of
reasoning, by means of which we may be
enabled successfully to resist those
who oppose the truth. Besides
adversaries are more easily foiled when
we can turn their own weapons against
them."{3 166 Eccl Hist Chapter XVI}
[450 AD]
(Greek:
Πρόκλο`
2;) (410 CE Constantinople {now
Istanbul, Turkey} - 04/17/485 CE
Athens) is the last Pagan science
person recognized for any thing, at
this time, because of the intolerance
of the Christian people that now have a
majority, it is dangerous to be Pagan.
Proclus teaches at the Academy in the
last century of its existence and is
the head of that school. Proclus writes
a commentary of Ptolomy and Euclid.
Proklos writes about Euclid, Ktesibios,
and Pappos, all three who make
important contributions to science.
[09/04/476 AD]
[489 AD]
scientific center in Edessa, is
transferred to the School of Nisibis,
also known as "Nisibīn", then
under Persian rule with its secular
faculties at Gundishapur, Khuzestan.
Here, scholars, together with Pagan
philosophers banished by Justinian from
Athens carried out important research
in Medicine, Astronomy, and
Mathematics".
Iran, not far from the Karun
river.)
[499 AD]
rotation around its own axis.
[1] Español: Estatua de Aryabhata en
India This image of a public statue in
IUCAA Pune was photographed in May 2006
by myself, and I release all
rights. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:2064_aryabhata-crp.jpg
[500 AD]
[01/01/520 AD]
Severinus Boethius (c.480 CE Rome - 524
CE Ticinum (now Pavia), Italy), a high
ranking person in the the Roman
government under the Ostrogoth emperor
of Rome Theodoric, translates works of
Aristotle from Greek to Latin,
summarizes various science subjects, in
addition to writing "On he Consolation
of Philosophy" from prison, after
Theodoric arrests him for treason.
Boethius expressed ancient Hellenic
ideas of free will, and virtue, but
Boethius is thought to be Christian.
Boethius is one of the last Roman
people to understood Greek. The
writings of Boethius will be the only
source of Greek science for people in
Europe until Arabic writings are
translated to Latin 600 years later.
[1] Initial depicting Boethius teaching
his students from folio 4r of a
manuscript of the Consolation of
Philosophy (Italy?, 1385) MS Hunter
374 (V.1.11), Glasgow University
library Source URL:
http://special.lib.gla.ac.uk/exhibns/tre
asures/boethius.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Boethius_initial_consolation_philosop
hy.jpg
[2] Boethius: Consolation of
philosophy. This early printed book has
many hand-painted illustrations
depicting Lady Philosophy and scenes of
daily life in fifteenth-century Ghent
(1485). From English Wikipedia:
en:Image:Boethius.consolation.philosophy
.jpg Original sources:
http://www.loc.gov/rr/european/guide/hum
an.html and
http://www.loc.gov/rr/european/guide/ima
ges/eu025001.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Boethius.consolation.philosophy.jpg
[528 AD]
builds a hospital, as reward for
services given by a physician, Sampson
the Hospitable.
[1] Saint Sampson the
Hospitable COPYRIGHTED FAIR USE
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Saint_Samson_the_Hospitable.jpg
[529 AD]
Alexandria,Egypt)
[1] Artist Meister von San Vitale in
Ravenna Title Justinian I , San
Vitale (Ravenna) Deutsch: Chormosaiken
in San Vitale in Ravenna, Szene: Kaiser
Justinian und Bischof Maximilianus und
sein Hof, Detail: Büste des
Justinian Italiano: Basilica di San
Vitale a Ravenna, L'imperatore
Giustiniano I e il suo seguito.
Dettaglio della decorazione a mosaico
bizantina, compiuta entro il 547.
Dettaglio: Giustiniano
I. Date Deutsch: vor 547 English:
before 547 Medium Deutsch:
Mosaik Current location San Vitale
in Ravenna. Ravenna. Notes Deutsch:
Ravennatische Schule,
italo-byzantinische Werkstatt,
Auftraggeber: Bischof Maximilian und
Bankier Julianus, Mosaik im
Chor Source/Photographer The Yorck
Project: 10.000 Meisterwerke der
Malerei. DVD-ROM, 2002. ISBN
3936122202. Distributed by DIRECTMEDIA
Publishing GmbH. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Meister_von_San
_Vitale_in_Ravenna.jpg/778px-Meister_von
_San_Vitale_in_Ravenna.jpg
[2] Description English: Basilica of
Sant'Apollinare Nuovo (mosaic of
Justinian I) Date 2008 Source Own
work Author Testus CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a2/Sant%27Apollinare_Nuo
vo_%28Justinian_I%29.jpg
[529 AD]
(reign 527-565) orders death by fire,
and confiscation of all possessions by
the State to be the punishment for
heresy against the Christian religion
in his Codex Iustiniani (CJ 1.5.).
[1] Mosaic of Justinian I, obtained
from the Macedonia FAQ website,
http://faq.Macedonia.org/ The mosiac
itself is in the San Vitale church in
en:Ravenna, Italy. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Justinian.jpg
[2] Alphabetical index on the Corpus
Juris (Index omnium legum et
paragraphorum quae in Pandectis, Codice
et Institutionibus continentur, per
literas digestus.), printed by Gulielmo
Rovillio, Lyon, 1571 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Digesto_01.jpg
[530 AD]
Grammarian), (CE c490â"c570), a
Christian philosopher in Alexandria, in
a commentary on Aristotle's "Physics"
critisizes Aristotle's theory of motion
where air is thought to rush behind a
projectile to keep it moving, by
writing that a projectile moves on
account of a kinetic force which is
impressed on it by the mover and which
exhausts itself in the course of the
movement. Philoponus then evaluates the
medium, concluding instead of being
responsible for the continuation of a
projectile's motion, the medium is
actually an impediment to the
projectile's motion.
Concepts similar to Philoponus' impetus
theory appear in earlier writers such
as Hipparchos (2nd c. BCE) and Synesios
(4th c. CE)
[533 AD]
Justinian approve a treaty which
ensures the protection of the
philosophers who fled from prosecution.
These philosophers, for example
Damascius, the head of the Academy when
closed by Justinian, do not return to
Athens, but Alexandria instead.
[542 AD]
in Lyon, the oldest hospital in France
is founded.
In this and the Hotel-Dieu
in Paris, monks use religious-based
treatments more than trying to cure
health problems through science. The
monasteries have an infirmitorium, a
place where sick monks are taken for
treatment. The monasteries have a
pharmacy and frequently a garden with
medicinal plants. In addition to caring
for sick monks, the monasteries open
their doors to pilgrims and to other
travelers.
[1] Hospital Hôtel-Dieu : patio
interior
source: http://www.lyon.fr/vdl/sections/
es/tourisme/histoire/?aIndex=2
[589 AD]
this time. In this year the Chinese
scholar-official Yan Zhitui (531-591
AD) writes: "Paper on which there are
quotations or commentaries from Five
Classics or the names of sages, I dare
not use for toilet purposes".
[600 AD]
windmill uses a vertical shaft and
horizontal sails to grind grain.
[1] (Images via: Ullesthorpe,
BluePlanet, DeutschesMuseum and
WorldofEnergy) UNKNOWN
source: http://cdn.webecoist.com/wp-cont
ent/uploads/2009/01/ancient-persian-wind
mills.jpg
[613 AD]
محمد) (full
name: Abu al-Qasim Muhammad ibn 'Abd
Allah ibn 'Abd al-Muttalib ibn Hashim),
begins to preach monotheistic religion
in Mecca. Muhammad claims that complete
"surrender" to a single god (the
literal meaning of the word
"islām") is man's religion
(dīn), and that he is a prophet
and messenger of God, in the same way
that Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, David,
Jesus, and other prophets were. This is
the beginning of the religion of Islam
which will grow to dominate all Arab
and Persian nations. All or most of the
Holy book of Islam, the Qur'an will
apparently be written down by
Muhammad's followers after supposedly
being revealed by the Angel Grabriel
while Muhammad was alive. The Qur'an is
primarily an orally related document,
and the written compilation of the
whole Qur'an in its definite form will
be completed early after the death of
Muhammad. Initially, Islam will promote
literacy and education, and much of the
science of Greece and other nations
being supressed and destroyed under
Christianity will be preserved by
Arabic people living under Islam,
however Islam, like many religions,
will violently enforce belief and
conformity which will slow the natural
growth of science and atheism in Arabic
nations for centuries.
Arabia)
[1] Muhammd solves a dispute over
lifting the black stone into position
at al-Ka'ba. Note from pp. 100-101 of
''The illustrations to the World
history of Rashid al-Din / David Talbot
Rice ; edited by Basil Gray. Edinburgh
: Edinburgh University Press, c1976.''
- In the center, Muhammad, with two
long hair plaits, places the stone on a
carpet held at the four corners by
representatives of the four tribes, so
that all have the honor of lifting it.
The carpet is a kelim from Central
Asia. Behind, two other men lift the
black curtain which conceals the doors
of the sancuary. This work may be
assigned to the Master of the Scenes
from the Life of the Prophet. Source
Jami' al-Tavarikh (''The Compendium of
Chronicles'' or ''The Universal
Histroy'') This illustration is in a
folio in the Oriental Manuscript
Section of the Edinburgh University
Library, Special Collections and
Archives Date 1315 Author Rashid
Al-Din The earliest surviving image
of Muhammad from Rashid al-Din's Jami'
al-Tawarikh, approximately 1315,
depicting the episode of the Black
Stone. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Mohammed_kaaba_1315.jpg
[633 AD]
Cartagena, Seville - 4/4/636 CE
Seville) writes an Encyclopedia called
"Etymologies" which describes the
accumulated learning from the Greek
tradition.
[1] Holy Isidor of Sevilla,
bishop between 1628 and
1682 Bartolomé Esteban Murillo [t
perhaps important to note that no
paintings or drawings exist of Isadore
(to my knowledge and I haven't
searched) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Isidor_von_Sevilla.jpeg
[2] Statue of Isidore of Seville,
outside of the Biblioteca Nacional de
España, in Madrid. San Isidoro. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:SanIsidoroBibNac.JPG
[640 AD]
change to Islam. Coptic churches and
monastaries are left empty and
abandoned.
[642 AD]
[642 AD]
the events of the early Arab conquests
are recorded by historians from both
sides, by Arab, Copt and Byzantine
people, and that for more than five
centuries after the Arab invasion there
will be not one single reference to any
event connected with an Alexandrian
Library under Arab rule.
Not until the early
1200s will there be a report from an
Arab writer "Abdullatif of Bagdad"
around 1200 CE who will write a
confused statement upon seeing Pompey's
Piller that "I believe this was the
site of the stoa where Aristotle and
his successors taught; it was the
center of learning set up by Alexander
when he founded his city; in it was the
book-store which was burnt by Amr, by
order of Caliph Omar". Obviously, the
report about Aristotle is wrong,
placing Aristotle in the wrong school
in the wrong country, so clearly there
is a lot of erroneous info here. Many
of the Arab people will associate
Aristotle with the Greek learning in
Egypt. A much more detailed report will
be given by Ibn Al-Qifti in his
"History of Wise Men" written in the
1200s, which tells this story:
"There was at
that time a man named John the
Grammarian of Alexandria in Egypt; he
was a pupil of Severus, and had been a
Coptic priest, but was deprived of his
office owing to some heresy concerning
the Trinity, by a council held at
Babylon... He lived to see the capture
of Alexandria by the Arabs, and made
the acquaintance of Amr (also Amrou)
the Arab General in Egypt, whose clear
and active mind was no less astronished
then delighted with John's intellectual
acuteness and great learning.
Emboldened by Amr's favour, John one
day remarked, 'You have examined the
whole city, and have set your seal on
every kind of valuable. I make no claim
for anything that is useful to you, but
things useless to you may be of service
to us.'
'What are you thinking of?' asked
Amr.
'The books of wisdom', said John,
'which are in the royal treasuries.'
Amr asked, 'And
who collected these books?'
John answered,
'Ptolemy Philadephus, King of
Alexandria, was fond of learning....
His search for books went far and wide,
and he spared no costs in acquiring
them. He appointed Demetrios in charge.
He soon collected 54,000 books. One day
the king asked Demetrius, 'Do you think
there are still on earth books of
knowledge out of our hands?' 'Yes',
answered Demetrius, 'there are still
multitudes of them in Sind {North of
India}, India, Persia, Georgia,
Armenia, Babylonia, Music and Greece.'
The King was astonished to hear that,
and said, 'Continue gathering them.' In
that way he went on till he dies and
these books continued to be guarded and
preserved by the kings and their
successors till our day.'
Amr said, 'I cannot
dispose of these books without the
authority of Caliph.'
According to Al-Qifti, Amr
sends a letter to Omar, and Omar
responses with: 'Touching the books you
mention, if what is written in them
agrees with the Book of God, they are
not required; if it disagrees, they are
not desired. Destroy them therefore."'
Amr then ordered the books to be
distributed among the baths of
Alexandria and used as fuel for
heating; it takes six months to consume
them. 'Listen and wonder' concludes
Al-Qifti. El-Abaddi explains that the
main problems identified with this
story are identified by J.H. Butler,
who identified John the Grammarian with
John Philoponus who lived 100 years
before the Arab invasion, and that the
text can be divided into 3 parts, the
first part about John the Grammarian is
taken almost verbatim from a work of
the tenth century by Ibn Al-Nadim which
does not include anything about the
library. The second part probably came
from the second century BCE, Letter of
Aristias. The third part is probably a
12th century creation used to justify
the Sunni Saladin selling many valuable
books as being less of a crime than the
burning of books.
Luciano Canfora claims that at this
time the city's books are now mainly
Christian writings, Acts of Councils,
and "sacred literature" in general.
Canfora includes details about John
Philoponus and a friend, Philaretes, a
Jewish doctor arguing with Amr, and
trying to convince Amr that the library
was destroyed recently.
According to (get author name, one
author), Edward Gibbon debunks this
story. Alfred Butler in 1902 discusses
at length the Arabic and other sources
for this story. This story first
appears in Abu'l Faraj, an Arab
historian of the 13th century CE. The
story first appears more than 500 years
after the Arab conquest of Alexandria.
John the Grammarian appears to be the
Alexandrian philosopher John
Philoponus, who must have been dead by
the time of the conquest. It seems that
both the Alexandrian libraries were
destroyed by the end of the fourth
century, citing Orosius describing the
bookcases only, and then as spoiling.
The same exact response of 'destroy
everything' is recorded by Ibn Khaldun
relating to the destruction of another
library in Persia.
Alfred Butler summarizes the reasons to
doubt this report of Amr destroying the
books of the great library:
"1) that the story
makes its first appearance more than
five hundred years after the event to
which it relates;
2) that on analysis the
details of the stories resolve into
absurdities;
3) that the principal actor in the
story, ..John Philoponus, was dead long
before the Saracens invaded Egypt;
4) that of
the two great public Libraries to which
the story could refer, a) the Museum
Library perished in the conflagration
caused by Julius Caesar, of, if not,
then at a date not less than four
hundred years anterior to the Arab
conquest; while b) the Serapeum Library
either was removed prior to the year
391, or was then dispersed or
destroyed, so that in any case it
disappeared two and a half centuries
before the conquest;
5) that fifth, sixth, and
early seventh century literature
contains no mention of the existence of
any such Library;
6) that if, nevertheless, it
had existed when Cyrus set his hand to
the treaty surrendering Alexandria, yet
the books would almost certainly have
been removed-under the clause
permitting the removal of
valuables-during the eleven months'
armistice which intervened between the
signature of the convention and the
actual entry of the Arabs into the
city;
and 7) that if the Library had been
removed, or if it had been destroyed,
the almost contemporary historian and
man of letters, John of Nikiou, could
not have passed over its disappearance
in total silence."
[660 AD]
the oldest hospital in Paris, France is
established.
[1] Main entrance of the Hôtel-Dieu,
in 2007 GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Hotel_Dieu_Paris_P1200006.jpg
[680 AD]
distinguished member of the Omayyad
family, orders a group of Greek
philosophers living in Egypt to
translate medical books from Greek and
Coptic into Arabic, according to Ibn
Al-Nadim in the 900s, who indicates
that this is the 'beginning of
translation in Islam'.
[685 AD]
makes a special department for
translation. His son and successor,
Hisham Ibn Abdel-Malik continues this
work, the secretary of Hisham
translates Aristotle's "Letter to
Alexander", some 100 papers. These
efforts will be forgotten, however
until the early Abbassid Caliphs.
[713 AD]
Durham - May 27, 735 Jarrow), a monk in
Great Britain, recognizes that the time
system of Sosigenes is not accurate
since the vernal equinox arrives 3 days
earlier than the traditional March 21,
understands that the tides are affected
by the moon and that the earth is a
sphere. Bede is the first to date
events based on the birth of Jesus,
instead of the creation of the world,
this stupid BC/AD system will become
standard and shockingly continues even
to this time. Bede writes "Historia
ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum" (The
Ecclesiastical History of the English
People) and other works.
[1] Depiction of the Venerable Bede
(CLVIIIv) from the Nuremberg Chronicle,
1493. From:
http://www.beloit.edu/~nurember/book/ima
ges/People/Early_Christian_Medieval/ PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Nuremberg_Chronicle_Venerable_Bede.jp
g
[2] ''The Venerable Bede Translates
John'' by J. D. Penrose PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Venbedes.jpg
[751 AD]
[1] Portrait of Jabir ibn Hayyan
http://histoirechimie.free.fr/Lien/Geber
.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Geber.jpg
[2] alchemist Jabir ibn Hayyan, from a
15th c. European portrait of ''Geber'',
Codici Ashburnhamiani 1166, Biblioteca
Medicea Laurenziana, Florence, public
domain PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jabir_ibn_Hayyan.jpg
[760 AD]
books of learning from Byzantium
including Euclid's "Elements" according
to Ibn Khaldun, a historian in the 14th
century, who claims that "Elements" is
the first Greek work to be translated
into Arabic under Islam.
[770 AD]
[1]
http://specialcollections.wichita.edu/ex
hibits/aitchison/images/aitch05.jpg UNK
NOWN
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jingangjing.gif
[2] Printed sutra enclosed in a wood
pagoda Commissioned by the Empress
Shotoku-tenno in 764 AD (r.
765-769) Japan, Hyakumanto 19 cm x
10.3 cm pagoda and 7 x 45 cm scroll;
wood and paper UNKNOWN
source: http://specialcollections.wichit
a.edu/exhibits/aitchison/images/aitch05.
jpg
[781 AD]
England
[1] Raban Maur (left), supported by
Alcuin (middle), dedicates his work to
Archbishop Otgar of Mainz
(Right) Hrabanus Maurus, von Alcuin
empfohlen, übergibt sein Werk dem
Erzbischof von Mainz,
Otgar Carolingian
Manuscript manuscriptum Fuldense ca.
831/40, Österreichische
Nationalbibliothek Wien PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Raban-Maur_Alcuin_Otgar.jpg
[2] Page of text (folio 160v) from a
Carolingian Gospel Book (British
Library, MS Add. 11848), written in
Carolingian minuscule. Taken from
http://www.bl.uk/catalogues/illuminatedm
anuscripts/record.asp?MSID=8614&CollID=2
7&NStart=11848 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:BritLibAddMS11848Fol160rText.jpg
[01/01/789 AD]
January 28, 814), as King of the
Franks, establishes schools where math
grammar and ecclesiastical subjects are
taught.
[1] No description from Charlemagne's
lifetime exists.[2] Charlemagne and
Pippin the Hunchback (Karl der Große
und Pippin der Bucklige) 10th
century copy of a lost original, which
was made back between 829 and 836 in
Fulda for Eberhard von Friaul PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Karl_der_Grosse_-_Pippin_der_Bucklige
.jpg
[2] A portrait of Charlemagne by
Albrecht Dürer that was painted
several centuries after Charlemagne's
death. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Charlemagne-by-Durer.jpg
[800 AD]
(Central Asia)
[1] Fig 1: Byzantine, ivory casket
c.1000 (from Museo Nazionale, Florence,
Coll. Carrand, No.26) - earliest
depiction of a rebec like instrument.
Has pear shaped body blending into long
narrow neck. There is a definite
anchorpoint at the base, with a kind of
fleur tailpiece, though the pegs appear
to be missing from the depiction (no
other anchorpoint is clearly
indicated). There are only two strings,
and the bow is very long and narrow
(though it may simply be the artist
trying the show that the bow is
perpendicular to the surface of the
strings, thus appearing flat when
viewed edge on). No sound holes are
shown, the soundboard seems to be a
distinct, attached piece (possibly a
skin covering much like in rababs).
This is the instrument in
transition. PD
source: http://crab.rutgers.edu/~pbutler
/ob09.jpg
[2] Fig 2: Spanish, Catalan Psalter,
c.1050. (''King David and musicians
tuning their instruments'' in
Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris, MS Lat.
11550, fol. 7v)- Shows a normal pear
body shape. Three distinct strings,
attached to a triangular tailpiece at
the base, and to vertically mounted
pegs at the other end. The pegbox is a
round disk that appears to be made of
the same piece as the neck/body,
suggesting that this is a unibody
construction. Again a little endpiece
or endpeg is indicated. There are two
round sound holes set far back on the
instrument. The bow is a simple curved
bow with end pressure grip (see below).
This image is also somewhat suspect
from the distortion of the left hand,
which has the fingers curling backwards
rather than forward as they actually
must. PD
source: http://crab.rutgers.edu/~pbutler
/ob25.jpg
[815 AD]
Wisdom).
[1] Harun al-Rashid: (ca: 763-809) was
the fifth and most famous Abbasid
Caliph. Ruling from 786 until 809, his
reign and the fabulous court over which
he held sway are immortalized in The
Book of One Thousand and One Nights PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Harun_Al-Rashid_and_the_World_of_the_
Thousand_and_One_Nights.jpg
[2] Julius Köckert's painting of
Harun al-Rashid receiving the
delegation of Charlemagne demonstrates
the latter's recognition of Hārūn
ar-Rashīd as the most powerful man of
his culture. The painting by Julius
Köckert (Koeckert) (1827-1918), dated
1864, is located at Maximilianeum
Foundation in Munich. It is Oil on
Canvas. This Image of the painting was
created and provided by Zereshk. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Harun-Charlemagne.jpg
[825 AD]
9), and decimal point notation.
[1] A page from Al-Khwārizmī's
al-Kitāb al-mukhtaṣar fī ḥisāb
al-jabr wa-l-muqābala. Source John
L. Esposito. The Oxford History of
Islam. Oxford University Press. ISBN
0195107993. Date c. 830 Author
al-Khwarizmi PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Al-Kitab_al-mukhtasar_fi_hisab_al-jab
r_wa-l-muqabala.jpg
[2] Muḥammad ibn Mūsā
al-Ḵwārizmī. (He is on a Soviet
Union commemorative stamp, issued
September 6, 1983. The stamp bears his
name and says ''1200 years'', referring
to the approximate anniversary of his
birth). ПОЧТА СССР 1983
POČTA SSSR 1983 Soviet Post
1983 4к 4k 4 kopeks 1200 ЛЕТ
1200 LET 1200 years Мухаммед
аль·Хорезми Muxammed
al′·Xorezmi Muhammad
al-Khwarizmi Source:
http://jeff560.tripod.com/ specifically
http://jeff560.tripod.com/khowar.jpg
PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Abu_Abdullah_Muhammad_bin_Musa_al-Khw
arizmi.jpg
[829 AD]
experiment of Eratosthenes to measure
the earth's arc by assembling a number
of scientists in the plain of Sinjar in
Mesopotamia, west of Mosul. Al-Ma-mun
divides the scientists into two groups
which move apart until they see a
change of one degree in elevation of
the pole (star). The distance travelled
is then measured and found to be
228,000 "black cubits", a measure of
length specially created for this
experiment, and another measurement of
234,000 black cubits. 2,500 black
cubits equals 1 km and 4,000 black
cubits equals 1 mile, so these
measurements, when multiplied by 360
degrees, since there are 360 degrees in
a full circle, equal a circumference of
around 33 km (the modern estimate is
around 40,000 km), or 21,000 mi (the
modern estimate is around 25,000 mi).
This estimate is just a few thousand km
or miles short of the actual
circumference.
Mosul
[841 AD]
Yaʻqūb ibn Isḥāq
al-Kindī) (Arabic:
يعقوب
بن
اسحاق
الكند¡
0;) (Latinized Alkindus), working in
the House of Wisdom in Baghdad,
oversees the translation of many Greek
texts into Arabic, and writes many
original treatises on mathematics,
phamacology, ethics, and others of
non-scientific nature (such as
metaphysics). Al-Kindi is the first of
the Arab peripatetic philosophers, and
is known for his efforts to introduce
Greek philosophy to people in Arab
lands.
Al-Kindi writes that all terrestrial
objects are attracted to the center of
the earth, which is the earliest
recorded form of a gravity law.
[1] Al-Kindi depicted in a Syrian Post
stamp. http://www.apprendre-en-ligne.ne
t/crypto/stat/Al-Kindi.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Al-Kindi.jpg
[2] Abū-Yūsuf Ya''qūb
ibn Ishāq
al-Kindī http://www.islamonline.co
m/cgi-bin/news_service/profile_story.asp
?service_id=982
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Al-kindi.jpeg
[850 AD]
[1] Description The earliest known
written description of the formula for
gunpowder, from the Chinese Wujing
Zongyao military manuscript that was
compiled by 1044 during the Song
Dynasty of China. It was written and
compiled by the 11th century Song
scholars Zeng Gongliang (曾公亮),
Ding Du (丁度), and Yang Weide
(楊惟德). The entry for this
specific page is headed with the title
''method for making the fire-chemical''
(''huo yao fa''). This picture can
also be found on page 119 of Joseph
Needham's book Science and Civilization
in China: Volume 5, Part 7. Date
11 August 2007 Source Own
work (My book) Author
PericlesofAthens Permission (Reus
ing this file) See below. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c2/Chinese_Gunpowder_For
mula.JPG
[850 AD]
حنين
بن
إسحاق
العباž
3;ي ) (Latin: Johannitius) (CE
810-877), an Arab Nestorian Christian
physician and scholar is appointed head
of the Bayt al Hikma (a college of
scholars supported by the Abbasids for
the purpose of translating Greek
texts). Hunayn ibn Ishaq with his
students, which include his son, make
the most exact translations from Greek
texts into Syriac and Arabic versions.
These translations will play a major
role in the rise of interest in
Hellenistic science by Arabic people.
Of particular value are Ibn Ishaq's
translations of Galen, because most of
the original Greek manuscripts will be
lost.
Ibn Ishaq translates many treatises of
Galen and the Galenic school into
Syriac, and thirty-nine into Arabic.
Hunayn also translates Aristotle's
"Categories", "Physics", and "Magna
Moralia"; Plato"s "Republic",
"Timaeus", and "Laws"; Hippocrates"
"Aphorisms", Dioscorides" "Materia
Medica", Ptolemy's "quadri-partition",
and the Old Testament from the
Septuagint Greek.
In addition to Hunain's work of
translation, he writes treatises on
general health and medicine and various
specific topics, including a series of
works on the eye which will remain
influential until 1400.
[850 AD]
Abbasid Caliph, Al-Mutawakkil applies a
discriminatory policy toward minority
groups like the Assyrian Christians and
Jews. In a decree of this year, the
caliph orders that these "Ahlu
dh-Dhimma" (أهل
الذمة) or
"Protected Peoples" be made to wear
various specific identifying marks and
honey-colored robes and even to make
their slaves immediately identifiable
in the marketplaces.
These decrees also force the
destruction of all churches and
synagogues built since Islam was
established and confiscate one out of
every ten Christian or Jewish homes
with the stipulation that, where
suitable, mosques should occupy the
sites or that the sites should be left
open. The doors of remaining buildings
are to be identified by wooden images
of devils that are to be nailed to
them.
The decree also stipulates that Jewish
and Christian graves should be flat
against the ground, which would
identify them as non-Muslim graves.
Al-Mutawakkil bars Jews and Christians
from ruling over Muslims, thus
effectively removing them from
government service, and limits their
schooling to that which is taught by
Jews and Christians, forbidding Muslims
from teaching them.
The aggregate of these rulings can very
plausibly be interpreted as a means of
identifying "infidels", their women and
even their slaves, the doorways of
their houses, and their graves, in
order to expose them to the wrath of
the mob.
[876 AD]
[1] Bill Casselman (University of
British Columbia), American
Mathematical Society, ''All for
Nought'' http://www.ams.org/samplings/f
eature-column/fcarc-india-zero PERSONAL
USE OK UNKNOWN
source: http://www.ams.org/samplings/fea
ture-column/fcarc-india-zero
[2] The temple is dated to 876 A. D.
and is much older than the current
fort, whose construction was begun in
the late 15th century, although it was
built quite a while after the original
one constructed on the plateau. It is,
like many temples in India, monolithic
- that is to say, originally carved out
of one single chunk of stone. It was
dedicated to Vishnu, but is no longer
an active site of worship. PERSONAL
USE OK UNKNOWN
source: http://www.ams.org/featurecolumn
/images/february2007/temple3-small.jpg
[876 AD]
Al-Sabi' Thabit ibn Qurra al-Harrani)
(arabic ثابت
بن قرة
بن
مروان)
(CE 836-901) an Arabian mathematician,
astronomer, and physician, in the House
of Wisdom in Bagdad, translates many
works of Greek scientists into Arabic
in addition to writing commentary on
them.
Thabit goes to Baghdad to work for
three wealthy brothers, known as the
Banu Musa, translating Greek
mathematical texts. Among the major
Greek mathematicians whose works Thabit
translates (or whose translations he
revises) are Euclid, Archimedes,
Apollonius of Perga, and Ptolemy. Ibn
Qurra also prepares summaries of the
works of the physicians Galen of
Pergamum and Hippocrates as well as the
philosophy of Aristotle. Ibn Qurra then
writes original works on geometry,
statics, magic squares, the theory of
numbers, music, astronomy, medicine,
and philosophy.
Thabit ibn Qurrah is a major
translator, almost as important as
Hunayn, for creating lasting works in
health and philosophy.
[1] None, COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.islam.org.br/Ibn_Qurr
a.gif
[2] None COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.renaissanceastrology.
com/thabit.html
[878 AD]
10/28/900), an english monarch,
establishes a court school after the
example of Charlemagne. and orders the
translation of Latin books into Old
English, translating some books from
Latin himself, for example, Boethius
and Bede.
southwestern England.
[1] Alfred the
Great Corbis-Bettmann COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-8295?articleTypeId=1
[2] Statue of Alfred the Great,
Wantage, Oxfordshire GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:KingAlfredStatueWantage.jpg
[890 AD]
created. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle is a
chronological account of events in
Anglo-Saxon and Norman England, a
compilation of seven surviving
interrelated manuscript records that is
the primary source for the early
history of England.
southwestern England.
[1] The initial page of the
Peterborough Chronicle, marked
secondarily by the librarian of the
Laud collection. The manuscript is an
autograph of the monastic scribes of
Peterborough. The opening sections were
likely scribed around 1150. The section
displayed is prior to the First
Continuation. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Peterborough.Chronicle.firstpage.jpg
[2] A page from the C manuscript of
the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. It shows the
entry for the year 871. British
Library Cotton Tiberius B i. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:ASC_C_ms_871.jpg
[900 AD]
(medical) school, in Salerno, Italy,
grows from the dispensary of a
monastery founded in the 800s. (A
dispensary is a charitable or public
place where medicines are provided and
free or inexpensive health advice is
available.) Some people view this
medieval physician school as the first
university.
On the Amalfi Coast in Salern, Italy,
Christian, Islamic and Jewish health
science flow together and create a
health science renaissance.
The first recorded female medical
school faculty member named "trotula de
ruggiero" or "trocta salernitana"
learns in the school in Solerno.
[1] A miniature depicting the Schola
Medica Salernitana from a copy of
Avicenna's Canons PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:ScuolaMedicaMiniatura.jpg
[2] Hand colored wood cut illustration
depicting the medical school at
Salerno. De conservanda bona
valetudine opusculum scholae
Salernitanae, 1554. Galter Medical
Rare Books 613 R26 1554 PD
source: http://www.galter.northwestern.e
du/library_notes/40/woodcut_full.jpg
[904 AD]
[1] A Mongol bomb thrown against a
charging Japanese samurai during the
Mongol Invasions of Japan,
1281. Suenaga facing Mongol arrows and
bombs. From MokoShuraiEkotoba
(蒙古襲来絵詞), circa 1293, 13th
century. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Mooko-Suenaga.jpg
[910 AD]
(full name: Abū Nasr Muhammad ibn
al-Farakh al-Fārābi)
(Persian: محمد
فاراب®
0;) (Latin: Alpharabius) (CE c870-c950)
writes many works on of mathematics,
philosophy and music. Al-Farabi is the
first Arab scholar to classify all the
sciences as Aristotle did. Of the 70
works credited to al-Farabi, half are
devoted to logic, including commentary
on the "Organon" of Aristotle.
Al-Farabi writes independent works on
physics, mathematics, music, ethics,
and political philosophy.
[1] Al-Farabi's imagined face appears
on the currency of the Republic of
Kazakhstan COPYRIGHTED
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:200TengeNote.jpg
[920 AD]
America.
[1] Figure from: Helge Ingstad, ''The
Viking Discovery of America: The
Excavation of a Norse Settlement in
L'Anse aux Meadows, Newfoundland'',
2001. COPYRIGHTED
source: Helge Ingstad, "The Viking
Discovery of America: The Excavation of
a Norse Settlement in L'Anse aux
Meadows, Newfoundland", 2001.
[2] Figure 24 from: Helge Ingstad,
''The Viking Discovery of America: The
Excavation of a Norse Settlement in
L'Anse aux Meadows, Newfoundland'',
2001. COPYRIGHTED
source: Helge Ingstad, "The Viking
Discovery of America: The Excavation of
a Norse Settlement in L'Anse aux
Meadows, Newfoundland", 2001.
[936 AD]
name: Abu al-Hasan Ali ibn al-Husayn
al-Masudi) (أبو
الحسن
، علي
بن
الحسي
6;
المسع
8;دي) (CE c896-956), writes
a world history, "Akhbar az-zaman"
("The History of Time") in 30 volumes.
[960 AD]
[1] Description Drawing of an
early Chinese soldier lighting a
rocket Date 2007 Source
http://history.msfc.nasa.gov/rocket
ry/03.html Author
NASA Permission (Reusing this
file) NASA still images, audio
files and video generally are not
copyrighted. You may use NASA imagery,
video and audio material for
educational or informational purposes,
including photo collections, textbooks,
public exhibits and Internet Web
pages. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/63/Chinese_rocket.gif
[2] Widely reputed as the world's
first ''astronaut'', Wan Hu was a minor
Chinese official of the Ming Dynasty
(1368-1644). Early in the 16th century,
Wan Hu decided to take advantage of
China's advanced power and fireworks
technology to launch himself into outer
space. He had a chair built with 47
''rockets'' attached. On the day of
lift-off, Wan climbed into his rocket
chair and held one enormous kite in
each hand. The ignition of the 47 fuses
caused a huge explosion and sent him
into the sky. But unfortunately, he
failed to go into orbit and his body
smashed into pieces on the ground.
UNKNOWN
source: http://images.china.cn/images1/2
00710/410673.jpg
[964 AD]
عبدالž
5;حمان
صوفی) (Latin:
Azophi) (CE 903-986), Persian
astronomer, publishes his "Book of
Fixed Stars", which describes much of
his work, both in textual descriptions
and pictures. This work contains the
first recorded description of the Large
Magellanic Cloud, and the earliest
recorded observation of the Andromeda
Galaxy.
(modern Iran)
[1] Persian Astronomer Al Sufi PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Al_Sufi.jpg
[2] The constellation Centaurus from
The Depiction of Celestial
Constellations. An image of Al Sufi
from the 'Depiction of Celestial
Constellations' PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Book_Al_Sufi.jpg
[970 AD]
[1] Description English: Al-Azhar
Mosque and Al Azhar University,
Cairo. Date June 2006 Source Own
work Author Tentoila PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Al-Azhar_2006.j
pg/1280px-Al-Azhar_2006.jpg
[2] Al-Azhar Mosque in Cairo
Egypt GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Al-Azhar_Mosque_.jpg
[975 AD]
of a triangle of binomial coefficients
occurs in commentaries by Halayudha, on
the "Chandas Shastra", an ancient
Indian book on Sanskrit written by
Pingala between 400-100 BCE.
[979 AD]
Abu'l Qasim Maslamah al-Majrifi)
(Arabic: أبÙ
اÙÙاسÙ
٠سÙÙ Ø© بÙ
Ø£Ø٠د
اÙ٠جرÙØ·Ù) (CE
9?? - 1007), an Arab Muslim scholar in
Spain, writes two important works on
alchemy, "The Sage's Step" and "The Aim
of the Wise" (in Latin: "Picatrix") and
establishes a school in Cordova where
the historian Ibn Kaldun and the
physician al-Zahrawi will study.
[981 AD]
in Baghdad.
[985 AD]
aurillac, auvergne - 5/12/1003 Rome,
Italy) is a prolific scholar of the
10th century. Gerbert introduces Arab
knowledge of arithmetic and
astronomy/astrology to Europe. Gerbert
picks up the use of Indian numerals
(many times called arabic numerals)
without zero perhaps from Alkwarizmior
in Spain and is one of the first people
to use Indian numerals in Europe.
Gerber
t reintroduces the use of the abacus in
mathematical calculation. Gerbert
builds clocks, organs, and astronomical
instruments by consulting translated
arab works.
Gerbert writes a series of
works dealing with matters of the
quadrivium (the higher division of the
liberal arts, which includes music,
arithmetic, geometry, and astronomy).
In Rheims, he constructs a hydraulic
organ that excels all previously known
instruments, where the air had to be
pumped manually.
According to Asimov, Gerbert is
suspected of wizardry because of his
great wisdom.
[1] Impression of Sylvester II. Artist
unknown. immediate source:
italycyberguide.com [1] [2], marked
''© Copyright 1999-2004 Riccardo
Cigola'' PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Silvester_II.JPG
[2] Pope Silvester II. and the
Devil Illustration from Cod. Pal.
germ. 137, Folio 216v Martinus
Oppaviensis, Chronicon pontificum et
imperatorum ~1460 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Silvester_II._and_the_Devil_Cod._Pal.
_germ._137_f216v.jpg
[1000 AD]
[1] English First page (AA-AB) from an
early printed edition of the Suda. The
column headings read ''Beginning of
letter A/A standing alone'' and ''A
with B''. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/e2/Suda.jpg
[1000 AD]
[1] English: Early paper money, China,
Song Dynasty scan from
《社会历史博物馆》 ISBN
7-5347-1397-8 北宋交子 jiaozi,
w:Northern Song Dynasty The text
reads:
除四川外許於諸路州縣公私從
主管並同見錢七百七十陌流
行使, which essentially means that
except in w:Sichuan, the bill may be
used in the stead of 77,000 wen of
metal coinage. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d9/Jiao_zi.jpg
[2] scan from
《社会历史博物馆》 ISBN
7-5347-1397-8 会子 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6a/Hui_zi.jpg
[1010 AD]
Abu 'Ali al-Husayn ibn 'Abd Allah ibn
Sina) Persian: ابو
علی
الحسی
6; ابن
عبدال
4;ه ابن
سینا) (Latin:
Avicenna oViSeNo) (CE 980-1037), a
Persian physician writes "Canon of
Medicine" a massive book of Arab health
science. This book will be translated
into Latin and be taught for centruies
in European universities. Ibn Sina is
also famous for an encyclopedia "The
Book of Healing" (Kitab al-shifa) which
is described as the high point of
Peripatetic philosophy in Arabic
science and contains chapters on logic,
mathematics and natural sciences. Ibn
Sina's works will have a large
influence on both Arabic and Latin
health science for centuries.
Ibn Sina is credited with more than 250
books on a wide range of subjects, many
of which concentrate on philosophy and
health. His most famous works are "The
Canon of Medicine", which will be for
almost five centuries a standard
medical text at many European
universities and "The Book of Healing".
Ibn Sina's theories are based on those
of Hippocrates and Galen which he
combines with Aristotelian metaphysics
as well as traditional Persian and Arab
lore.
About 100 treatises are ascribed to Ibn
Sina. Some of them are tracts of a few
pages, others are works extending
through several volumes. The best-known
of these works, and that defines Ibn
Sina's European reputation, is his
14-volume "The Canon of Medicine",
which will be translated into Latin in
the 1100s, and will be a standard
medical text in Western Europe for
almost five centuries until the time of
Harvey. This work classifies and
describes diseases, and outlines their
assumed causes. Hygiene, simple and
complex medicines, and functions of
parts of the body are also covered. In
this, Ibn Sina is credited as being the
first to correctly document the anatomy
of the human eye, along with
descriptions of eye afflictions such as
cataracts. It asserts that tuberculosis
was contagious, which will be later
disputed by Europeans, but will be
found to be true. It also describes the
symptoms and complications of diabetes.
In addition, the workings of the heart
as a valve are described.(needs
citation)
Almost half of Avicenna's works are
versed as poetry.
[1] Source:
http://www.cais-soas.com/CAIS/Science/ir
an_sience.htm - Permission granted by
CAIS. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Avicenna_Persian_Physician.jpg
[2] Ibn Sina - w:Avicenna, as
appearing on a Polish stamp PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Avicenna2.jpg
[1038 AD]
obscura).
[1] Figure 2. The concept of the
camera obscura as perceived a thousand
years ago by Alhazen (Ibn al-Haytham),
who coined the term (see text). Note
the formation of the inverted image
through a ray diagram. Adapted from
Al-Hassani et al. (2006). from: Ahmed
H. Zewail, Micrographia of the
twenty-first century: from camera
obscura to 4D microscopy Phil. Trans.
R. Soc. A March 13, 2010 368 (1914)
1191-1204;
doi:10.1098/rsta.2009.0265 http://rsta.
royalsocietypublishing.org/content/368/1
914/1191.abstract COPYRIGHTED
source: http://rsta.royalsocietypublishi
ng.org/content/368/1914/1191/F2.large.jp
g
[2] [t Portrait of al-Hazen on paper
money] UNKNOWN
source: http://robbani.net78.net/wp/wp-c
ontent/uploads/2012/01/haisam5.jpg
[1041 AD]
individual blocks can be put together
to form a text.
[1] Figure 1138. Earliest extant
edition of the ''Meng Chhi Pi Than'',
printed in the + 14th century. The
passage rearranged into one double-leaf
above records the first use of the
earthenware movable type printing by Pi
Sheng in the middle of the + 11th
century. Copy preserved at the National
Library of China. Joseph Needham,
''Science and Civilisation in China'',
Tsien, v5,part 1, Paper and Printing.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
1985.
{Needham_printing_China_1985.pdf} PD
source: Joseph Needham, "Science and
Civilisation in China", Tsien, v5,part
1, Paper and Printing. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 1985.
{Needham_printing_China_1985.pdf}
[2] Fig 1141. Earthenware types of
Chai Chin-Sheng, c +1844, discovered in
1962 in Hui-chou, Anhui province. Above
are four different sizes of the type
and below are the printed characters
from the large size of the
type. Courtesy of the Institute of
History of Science, Academia Sinica,
Peking. Joseph Needham, ''Science and
Civilisation in China'', Tsien, v5,part
1, Paper and Printing. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 1985.
{Needham_printing_China_1985.pdf} PD
source: Joseph Needham, "Science and
Civilisation in China", Tsien, v5,part
1, Paper and Printing. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 1985.
{Needham_printing_China_1985.pdf}
[1064 AD]
name: Ghiyās ol-Dīn
Ab'ol-Fath Omār ibn
Ebrāhīm Khayyām
Neyshābūrī) (Persian:
غیاث
الدین
ابو
الفتح
عمر بن
ابراه®
0;م خیام
نیشاب
8;ری),(CE 1048-1131) a
mathematician, astronomer and poet, in
an early paper he writes regarding
cubic equations, Khayyam discovers that
a cubic equation (a polynomial equation
of the third degree (in other words an
equation where at least one variable is
raised to the third power, and no other
variables are raised to a higher power
than 3)) can have more than one
solution, that it cannot be solved
using earlier compass and straightedge
constructions, and finds a geometric
solution (for the variable or "roots"
of all cubic equations) (by
intersecting a parabola with a
circle(?)) which can be used to get a
numerical answer by consulting
trigonometric tables.
Although Khayyam's approach at solving
for the roots of cubic equations by
intersecting a parabola with a cicle
had earlier been attempted by
Menaechmus and others, Khayyám
provides a generalization extending it
to all cubic equations.
[1] Statue of Khayyam at his Mausoleum
in Neyshabur Omar Chayyām aus:
http://www-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk/hist
ory/PictDisplay/Khayyam.html http://de.
wikipedia.org/wiki/Bild:Omar_Chayyam.jpe
g PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Omar_Chayyam.jpg
[2] Omar Khayam's tomb, Neishapur,
which is a city in Iran (Neishapur was
a city of Eastern Seljuk Turkish
Empire). This Photo by user
zereshk. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Khayam.jpg
[1070 AD]
name: Ghiyās ol-Dīn
Ab'ol-Fath Omār ibn
Ebrāhīm Khayyām
Neyshābūrī) (Persian:
غیاث
الدین
ابو
الفتح
عمر بن
ابراه®
0;م خیام
نیشاب
8;ری),(CE 05/18/1048
-12/04/1131) writes "Treatise on
Demonstration of Problems of Algebra"
(Risalah fi'l-barahin 'ala masa'il
al-jabr wa'l-muqabalah), the best book
on algebra of this time. In this book
Khayyam catagorizes equations according
to their degree, gives rules for
solving quadratic equations (polynomial
equations of the second degree
(equations where the variable with the
highest power is the power of 2), which
are very similar to the ones in use
today, and a geometric method for
solving cubic equations with real (non
integer) roots fonjud by means of
intersecting conic sections. In this
book Khayyam also extends Abu al-Wafa's
results on the extraction of cube and
fourth roots to the extraction of nth
roots of numbers for arbitrary whole
numbers n.(not clear, show work if
possible)
[1] Statue of Khayyam at his Mausoleum
in Neyshabur Omar Chayyām aus:
http://www-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk/hist
ory/PictDisplay/Khayyam.html http://de.
wikipedia.org/wiki/Bild:Omar_Chayyam.jpe
g PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Omar_Chayyam.jpg
[2] Omar Khayam's tomb, Neishapur,
which is a city in Iran (Neishapur was
a city of Eastern Seljuk Turkish
Empire). This Photo by user
zereshk. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Khayam.jpg
[1073 AD]
calls Omar Khayyám, already a famous
mathematician, to build and work with
an observatory, along with various
other distinguished scientists.
Eventually, Khayyám very accurately
(correct to six decimal places)
measures the length of the solar year
as 365.24219858156 days. This calendar
measurement has only an 1 hour error in
every 5,500 years, whereas the
Gregorian Calendar used today, has a 1
day error in every 3,330 years. Khayyam
also calculates how to correct the
Persian calendar. On March 15, 1079,
Sultan Jalal al-Din Malekshah Saljuqi
(1072-92) will put this corrected
calendar, the Jalali calendar, which
Khayyam and other astronomers created
into effect, as in Europe Julius Caesar
had done in 46 B.C.E. with the
corrections of Sosigenes, and as Pope
Gregory XIII would do in February 1552
with Aloysius Lilius' corrected
calendar (although Britain will not
switch from the Julian to the Gregorian
calendar until 1751, and Russia will
not switch until 1918).
In this observatory Khayyam prepares
improved astronomical tables (describe
fully). Kyammam built a star map (now
lost).(original source?)
Omar Khayyam also
estimates and proves to an audience
that includes the then-prestigious and
most respected scholar Imam Ghazali,
that the universe is not moving around
earth as was believed by all at that
time. By constructing a revolving
platform and simple arrangement of the
star charts lit by candles around the
circular walls of the room, Khayyam
demonstrates that earth revolves on its
axis, bringing into view different
constellations throughout the night and
day (completing a one-day cycle).
Khayyam also elaborates that stars are
stationary objects in space which if
moving around earth would have been
burnt to cinders due to their large
mass.
[1] Statue of Khayyam at his Mausoleum
in Neyshabur Omar Chayyām aus:
http://www-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk/hist
ory/PictDisplay/Khayyam.html http://de.
wikipedia.org/wiki/Bild:Omar_Chayyam.jpe
g PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Omar_Chayyam.jpg
[2] Omar Khayam's tomb, Neishapur,
which is a city in Iran (Neishapur was
a city of Eastern Seljuk Turkish
Empire). This Photo by user
zereshk. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Khayam.jpg
[1077 AD]
name: Ghiyās ol-Dīn
Ab'ol-Fath Omār ibn
Ebrāhīm Khayyām
Neyshābūrī) (Persian:
غیاث
الدین
ابو
الفتح
عمر بن
ابراه®
0;م خیام
نیشاب
8;ری),(CE 05/18/1048
-12/04/1131) writes "Explanations of
the Difficulties in the Postulates of
Euclid" ("Sharh ma ashkala min
musadarat kitab Uqlidis"). An important
part of this book is concerned with
Euclid's famous parallel postulate,
which had also attracted the interest
of Thabit ibn Qurra. Al-Haytham had
previously attempted a demonstation of
the postulate; Omar's attempt is a
distinct advance.
Khayyam writes this
book in Esfahan and these ideas will
make their way to Europe, where they
will influenced the English
mathematician John Wallis (1616-1703),
and the eventual development of
non-Euclidean geometry.
Also around this time Khayyám writes a
geometry book (also in Esfahan) on the
theory of proportions. In this book
Khayyam argues for the important idea
of enlarging the notion of number to
include ratios of magnitudes (and
therefore such irrational numbers as
the square root of 2 and pi).
[1] Statue of Khayyam at his Mausoleum
in Neyshabur Omar Chayyām aus:
http://www-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk/hist
ory/PictDisplay/Khayyam.html http://de.
wikipedia.org/wiki/Bild:Omar_Chayyam.jpe
g PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Omar_Chayyam.jpg
[2] Omar Khayam's tomb, Neishapur,
which is a city in Iran (Neishapur was
a city of Eastern Seljuk Turkish
Empire). This Photo by user
zereshk. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Khayam.jpg
[1081 AD]
as an oval in an Earth-centered model.
[1] Spain 1986. Al-Zarqali (dead 1100).
Astronomer. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://worldheritage.heindorffhu
s.dk/frame-SpainCordoba.htm
[2] None, but next to text about
al-Zarqali COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/
issue/200407/science.in.al-andalus-.comp
ilation..htm
[1088 AD]
Zirong 子容) (1020 - 1101),
a Chinese engineer, invents a
water-driven astronomical clock, one of
the first uses of an escapement
mechanism (a device that stops a gear
from continuously unwinding, such as a
pendulum) and one of the first
astronomical clocks.
[1] A scale model of Su Song's
Astronomical Clock Tower, built in 11th
century Kaifeng, China. It was driven
by a large waterwheel, chain drive, and
escapement mechanism. Su Song's Water
Clock (蘇頌鐘). This
picture is a scaled model of Su Song's
water-powered clock tower. The
original clock tower was 35 feet tall.
It was a 3 story tower with an
armillary sphere on the roof, and a
celestial globe on the third
floor. This picture was taken in
July 2004 from an exhibition at Chabot
Space & Science Center in Oakland,
California. The quality of the picture
is not ideal because flash photography
was not allowed. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:SuSongClock1.JPG
[1088 AD]
[1] Description Il Palazzo dei notai
(a sin.) e Palazzo d'Accursio, in
Piazza Maggiore a Bologna,
Italia. Date 2006-27-03 Source
Flickr Author Gaspa Reviewer
Mac9 CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/11/Bologna-vista02.jpg
[2] English: The Collegio di Spagna, a
historic university college, originally
founded to support Spanish students in
Bologna, Italy. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Collegio-spagna
3.jpg/1280px-Collegio-spagna3.jpg
[1095 AD]
Pope Urban II to regain control of the
sacred city of Jerusalem and the
Christian Holy Land from the Islamic
Arab people.
What starts as an appeal to the French
knightly class quickly turned into a
wholesale migration and conquest of
territory outside of Europe. Both
knights and peasants from many
different nations of western Europe,
with little central leadership, travel
over land and by sea towards Jerusalem
and will capture the city in July 1099,
establishing the Kingdom of Jerusalem
and the other Crusader states. Although
these gains will last for fewer than
two hundred years, the First Crusade is
a major turning point in the expansion
of Western power, and is the only
crusade, in contrast to the many that
followed, to achieve its stated goal,
which is possession of Jerusalem.
[1] Pope Urban II at the Council of
Clermont, painting from c. 1490 Pope
Urban II at the Council of Clermont,
where he preached an impassioned sermon
to take back the Holy Land. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:CouncilofClermont.jpg
[2] Jewish people, identifiable by
their Judenhuts, are being killed by
Crusaders, from a 1250 French Bible PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:FirstCrusade.jpg
[1099 AD]
Order of St. John establish a hospital
in Jerusalem that can care for some
2,000 people. It is said to have been
particularly concerned with eye
disease, and be the first specialized
hospital.
The growth of hospitals accelerates
during the Crusades, which began at the
end of the 11th century. Military
hospitals came into being along the
well traveled routes. Disease kills
more people than Saracens (Islamic
soldiers).
[1] grand master & senior knights
hospitaller after 1307 move to rhodes
PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Knights_hospitaller.JPG
[2] Hospital of the Knights of St.
John, Jerusalem, c. 1959. The hospital
was founded in 1069 to care for
pilgrims to the Holy Land and run by a
small group of monks. After the capture
of Jerusalem in 1099, the monks became
a regular religious order called the
Knights of St. John, or the
Hospitallers. Major, ''The Knights of
St. John of Jerusalem,'' Ralph Major
vertical file. COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://clendening.kumc.edu/dc/rm
/m_07p.jpg
[1100 AD]
interest in the classic works of the
past changes from direct translation to
compilations and surveys of earlier
efforts, for example translating Ibn
Al-Quifti's "History of Wise Men", Ibn
Abi Usaybia's "Main Sources of Medical
Schools", and Al-Shahristani's "Creeds
and Sects".
[1106 AD]
Mohammad ibn Mohammad al-Ghazzali)
(Persian: ابو حامد محمد
ابن محمد الغزالی or
امام محمد غزالی) (Latin:
Algazel) (CE 1058-1111), a Persian
Islamic Theologin, writes "Tahafut
'al-Falasifah" (Arabic:تهافت
الفلاسفة) (The Incoherence of
the Philosophers), which marks a
turning point in Islamic philosophy in
its vehement rejections of Aristotle
and Plato. The book focuses on the
falasifa, a loosely defined group of
Islamic philosophers from the 8th
through the 11th centuries (most
notable among them Avicenna and
Al-Farabi) who drew intellectually upon
the Ancient Greeks. Ghazali bitterly
denounces Aristotle, Socrates and other
Greek writers as non-believers and
labels those who employed their methods
and ideas as corrupters of the Islamic
faith.
In the next century, Averroes will
draft a lengthy rebuttal of Ghazali's
Incoherence entitled "the Incoherence
of the Incoherence", however the course
of Islamic thought into an anti-science
Dark Age of religious intolerance had
already been set.
[1] Portrait of Ghazali in his late
years by an Iraqi artist Name:
Al-Ghazali (Algazel) Birth: 1058 CE
(450 AH) Death: 1111 CE (505
AH) School/tradition: Sufism, Sunnite
(Shafi'ite), Asharite Main interests:
Sufism, Theology (Kalam), Philosophy,
Logic, Islamic
Jurisprudence Influenced: Fakhruddin
Razi, Maimonides[1], Thomas Aquinas,
Raymund Martin, Nicholas of Autrecourt,
Shah Waliullah, Abdul-Qader Bedil PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ghazali.gif
[2] Haruniyah stucture in Tus, Iran,
named after Harun al-Rashid, the
mausoleum of Al-Ghazali is expected to
be situated on the entrance of this
monument Haruniyeh, Razavi Khorasan.
Sufis used to hang out here during the
Middle Ages. Iran GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Haruniyeh.JPG
[1120 AD]
Abelard) (oBALoR) (CE 1079-04/21/1142),
a French scholar, writes "Sic et Non"
(Yes and No), in Latin, a list of 158
philosophical and theological questions
about which there are divided opinions
and authorities conflict each other.
There are eleven surviving full and
partial manuscripts of the "Sic et
non".
Abilard is in constant danger of being
charged with heresy, and will die while
preparing his defense against a charge
of heresy.
Abelard also writes a book called
"Theologia", which will be formally
condemned as heretical and burned by a
council held at Soissons in 1121.
Paris, France
[1] Abélard and Héloïse depicted in
a 14th century manuscript Abelard,
with Heloise, miniature portrait by
Jean de Meun, 14th century; in the
Musee Conde, Chantilly, Fr.[3] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Abelard_and_Heloise.jpeg
[2] ''Abaelardus and Heloïse
surprised by Master Fulbert'', by
Romanticist painter Jean Vignaud
(1819) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Helo%C3%AFse_et_d%27Ab%C3%A9lard.jpg
[1130 AD]
Bernard) (Fontaines, near Dijon, 1090 -
August 21, 1153 Clairvaux), who helps
to form and preaches on the Second
Crusade (1145-46), is the prosecutor in
the trial of Peter Abelard, the French
scholar and author of "Sic et Non", for
heresy. Bernard also describes the
Jewish people, as "a degraded and
perfidious people"{1 get source}
(perfidious means "tending to betray,
disloyal and or faithless"). However,
after many Jewish people are murdered
in Germany, according to Martin Bouquet
(1685-1754) (Martin Bouquet, "Recueil
des Historiens des Gaules et de la
France," xv. 606) Bernard sends a
letter to (specifically?) England,
France and Germany expressing his view
that Jewish people should not be
disturbed or destroyed but that they
should be punished as a race of people
by dispersion for their crime against
Jesus (who again, was a Jewish person
with many Jewish disciples).(check)
[1] Bernard of Clairvaux, as shown in
the church of Heiligenkreuz Abbey near
Baden bei Wien, Lower Austria. Portrait
(1700) with the true effigy of the
Saint by Georg Andreas Wasshuber
(1650-1732), (painted after a statue in
Clairvaux with the true effigy of the
saint) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Heiligenkreuz.Bernard_of_Clervaux.jpg
.jpg)
[2] Bernhard of Clairvaux Initial B
from a 13th century illuminated
illuminated manuscript PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Bernhard_von_Clairvaux_%28Initiale-B%
29.jpg
[1130 AD]
c1150), English scholar translates
Euclid's "Elements" from Arabic to
Latin. This is the first time the
writings of Euclid will be available to
Europe. Adelard translates
al-Khwarizmi, and uses arabic numerals.
Adelard writes "Quaestiones
naturales"(Natural Questions) (76
discussions of human nature,
meteorology, astronomy, botany, and
zoology) which are based on all he has
learned about Arabic science. His other
writings include works on the abacus
and the astrolabe and a translation of
an Arabic astronomical table.
[1] Detail of a scene in the bowl of
the letter 'P' with a woman with a
set-square and dividers; using a
compass to measure distances on a
diagram. In her left hand she holds a
square, an implement for testing or
drawing right angles. She is watched by
a group of students. In the Middle
Ages, it is unusual to see women
represented as teachers, in particular
when the students appear to be monks.
She may be the personification of
Geometry. * Illustration at the
beginning of Euclid's Elementa, in the
translation attributed to Adelard of
Bath. * Date: 1309 - 1316 *
Location: France (Paris). Copyright:
The British Library. * original
from
http://www.bl.uk/services/learning/curri
culum/medrealms/t2womantask2.html
* second version adapted from
http://prodigi.bl.uk/illcat/ILLUMIN.ASP?
Size=mid&IllID=2756 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Woman_teaching_geometry.jpg
[1132 AD]
[1] Figure 2 from: Gwei-Djen, Lu,
Joseph Needham, and Phan Chi-Hsing.
“The Oldest Representation of a
Bombard.” Technology and Culture 29.3
(1988): 594–605.
Print. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3105
275 {Gwei-Djen_1988.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: Gwei-Djen, Lu, Joseph Needham,
and Phan Chi-Hsing. “The Oldest
Representation of a Bombard.”
Technology and Culture 29.3 (1988):
594–605.
Print. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3105
275 {Gwei-Djen_1988.pdf}
[2] Figure 3 from: Gwei-Djen, Lu,
Joseph Needham, and Phan Chi-Hsing.
“The Oldest Representation of a
Bombard.” Technology and Culture 29.3
(1988): 594–605.
Print. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3105
275 {Gwei-Djen_1988.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: Gwei-Djen, Lu, Joseph Needham,
and Phan Chi-Hsing. “The Oldest
Representation of a Bombard.”
Technology and Culture 29.3 (1988):
594–605.
Print. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3105
275 {Gwei-Djen_1988.pdf}
[1150 AD]
organistrum, is the first stringed
instrument to use a keyboard.
[1] Two Elders of the Apocolypse plying
an organistrum in the Portico de la
Gloria, completed in 1188, of Santiago
de Compostela Cathedral. Santiago de
Compostela, Spain GFDL
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6b/Organistrumsantiago20
060414.jpg
[1154 AD]
c1114 - 1187), and Italian scholar
translates (or supervises the
translation of) 92 Arabic works,
including portions of Aristotle, the
Almagest of Ptolemy, works of
Hippocrates, Euclid and Galen.
In Toledo,
which had been a center for Arab
learning, Gerard finds many Arab books
and people that help with translation.
Gerard moves to Toledo to learn Arabic
in order to read the "Almagest", which
is not available in Latin and remains
there for the rest of his life. Some
people speculate that Gerard is in
charge of a school of translators that
are responsible for some of the
translations. Gerard will complete the
translation of the Almagest in 1175.
Gerard also translates original Arabic
texts on health, mathematics,
astronomy, astrology, and alchemy.
Gerard is one of a small group of
scholars who invigorates medieval
Europe in the 1100s by transmitting
Greek and Arab traditions in astronomy,
medicine and other sciences, in the
form of translations into Latin, which
make them available to every literate
person in the West.
Gerard of Cremona's Latin translation
of Ptolemy's "Almagest" from Arabic
will be the only version of this book
that is known in Western Europe for
centuries, until George of Trebizond
and then Johannes Regiomontanus
translate it from the Greek originals
in the 1400s. The "Almagest" forms the
basis for a mathematical astronomy
until being replaced by the
sun-centered theory popularized by
Copernicus.
Gerard translates into Latin the
"Tables if Toledo", the most accurate
compilation of astronomical data ever
seen in Europe at the time. These
Tables are partly the work of
Al-Zarqali, known to the West as
Arzachel, a mathematician and
astronomer who flourished in Cordoba in
the eleventh century.
Al-Farabi, the Islamic "second teacher"
after Aristotle, wrote hundreds of
treatises. His book on the sciences,
"Kitab al-lhsa al Ulum", discusses
classification and fundamental
principles of science in a unique and
useful manner. Gerard renders this book
as "De scientiis" (On the Sciences).
Gerard translates Euclid"s "Geometry"
and Alfraganus's "Elements of
Astronomy".
Gerard also composes original treatises
on algebra, arithmetic and astrology.
In the astrology text, longitudes are
reckoned both from Toledo and Cremona.
[1] Ptolemy, Almagest In
Latin Translated by Gerard of
Cremona Parchment Thirteenth
century The most important medieval
Latin translation of the Almagest,
which is found in many manuscripts, was
made from the Arabic in Spain in 1175
by Gerard of Cremona, the most prolific
of all medieval translators from Arabic
into Latin. PD
source: http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/vati
can/images/math11a.jpg
[2] w opisie obrazka było ''A
midwife and an assistant stand by at
the birth of twins. Miniature from
Chururgia, by Gerard of Cremona,
twelfth century, Codex Series Nova
2641, fol 41 r. Osterreichische
Nationalbibliothek, Vienna.'' PD
source: http://www.freha.pl/lofiversion/
index.php?t8228.html
[1166 AD]
(oVROEZ) (full name: Abu-Al-Walid
Muhammad Ibn Ahmad Ibn Rushd) (Arabic:
أبو
الوليž
3; محمد
بن
احمد
بن رشد)
(CE 1126 - 12/10/1198), physician and
philosopher, writes an encyclopedia of
health science, commentaries on most of
Aristotle's surviving works, Plato's
"Republic", and original philosophical
works.
Among Ibn Rushd's health science
works are his original medical
encyclopedia called "Kulliyat"
("Generalities", i.e. general
medicine), known in Latin translation
as "Colliget", a compilation of the
works of Galen, and a verse commentary
on Ibn Sina's "Qanun fi 't-tibb" (Canon
of Medicine).
Ibn Rushd writes
commentaries on Arabic versions of most
of the surviving works of Aristotle.
Because Ibn Rushd has no access to any
text of Aristotle's "Politics", as a
substitute he comments on Plato's
"Republic".
Ibn Rushd's most important original
philosophical work is "The Incoherence
of the Incoherence" (Tahafut
al-tahafut), in which he defends
Aristotelian philosophy against
al-Ghazali's claims in "The Incoherence
of the Philosophers" (Tahafut
al-falasifa). Al-Ghazali argued that
Aristotelianism, especially as
presented in the writings of Ibn Sina
(Avicenna), is self-contradictory and
an affront to the teachings of Islam.
Ibn Rushd's (Averroes') argues that
al-Ghazali's arguments are mistaken and
that, in any case, the system of Ibn
Sina was a distortion of genuine
Aristotelianism. However, this work
will not have as much influence on
Arabic people as al-Ghazzali's original
attack on philosophers does. Although I
have not seen this mentioned before,
part of this unfortunate rejection of
ancient Greek science, may very well be
a racial prejudice against ideas from
Greek history versus ideas from Arabic
history, in particular those from
Muhammad as recorded in the Quran. In
Europe, however, Ibn Rushd will be
viewed as the most influential Arabic
thinker, and most of Ibn Rushd's works
survive today only in Latin and Hebrew
instead of the original Arabic.
Other works by Ibn Rushd are "the Fasl
al-Maqal", which argues for the
legality of philosophical investigation
under Islamic law, and the "Kitab
al-Kashf".
Asimov wrote that after Averroes the
Islamic world will enter a Dark Age,
where scientific inquiry will be lost,
just as the Christian world is emerging
from a Dark Age.
[1] Averroes, detail of the
fourteenth-century Florentine artist
Andrea Bonaiuto's Triunfo de Santo
Tomás. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:AverroesColor.jpg
[2] Averroes, a closeup of The School
of Athens, a fresco by Raffaello
Sanzio, 1509. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Averroes_closeup.jpg
[1167 AD]
oldest university of the
English-speaking nations is founded.
There is no clear date of foundation,
but teaching existed at Oxford in some
form in 1096 and developed rapidly in
this year, when Henry II bans English
students from attending the University
of Paris.
After a dispute between students and
townsfolk breaks out in 1209, some of
the academics at Oxford move north-east
to the town of Cambridge, where the
University of Cambridge will be
founded.
Kingdom)
[1] All Souls College quad COPYRIGHTED
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Oxford_University_Colleges-All_Souls_
quad.jpg
[2] Oxford's 'Dreaming Spires' at
sunset View of All Souls College and
the Radcliffe Camera, Oxford,
England COPYRIGHTED
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Oxfordskylinedawn.jpg
[1170 AD]
[1] The Sorbonne, Paris, in a 17th
century engraving PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Sorbonne_17thc.jpg
[1175 AD]
is founded.
Emilia-Romagna, Italy
[1] The see in Reggio Emilia PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Reggio_emilia_foro_boario_uni.jpg
[1176 AD]
משה בן
מימון)
(Arabic name: Abu Imran Mussa bin
Maimun ibn Abdallah al-Qurtubi
al-Israili (أبو
عمران
موسى
بن
ميمون
بن عبد
الله
القرط
6;ي
الإسر
5;ئيلي))
(Greek: Moses Maimonides
(Μωυσής
Μαϊμον^
3;δης)), a Jewish
philosopher and physician to Saladin,
completes his "Guide to the Perplexed"
in Arabic, which calls for a more
rational philosophy of Judaism.
writes "Guide for the Perplexed", where
he speaks against astrology and tries
to reconcile the Old Testament with the
teaching of Aristotle.
[1] Commonly used image indicating one
artist's conception of Maimonides's
appearance Moses Maimonides, portrait,
19th century. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Maimonides-2.jpg
[2] Statue of Maimonides in Córdoba,
Spain GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Maimonides-Statue.jpg
[1180 AD]
English scholar at the University of
Paris writes a book "De utensilibus"
("On Instruments") that is the first
mention of a mariner's compass in
Europe. Chinese people have been using
a (magnetic) compass for at least 200
years by this time.
Neckam writes "De naturis rerum" ("On
the Natures of Things"), a two-part
introduction to a commentary on the
Book of Ecclesiastes, which contains
miscellaneous scientific information
new to western Europe but already known
to educated people in Greek and Arabic
nations.
[11/??/1184 AD]
Lucius II makes burning the official
punishment for heresy.
[1] St Dominic (1170-1221[3]) presiding
over an auto de fe, Spanish,
1475 Representation of an Auto de fe,
(1475). [t I think this is a dubious
claim, that people didn't stay
around...they quickly leave when time
for the burning...I doubt it:] Many
artistic representations depict torture
and the burning at the stake as
occurring during the auto da fe.
Actually, burning at the stake usually
occurred after, not during the
ceremonies. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Inquisition2.jpg
[2] English: The burning of the knight
of Hohenberg with his servant before
the walls of Zürich, for sodomy,
1482. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5c/Burning_of_Sodomites.
jpg
[1195 AD]
to Lucena, possibly to gain undivided
loyalty from the people before a jihad
(holy war) against Christian Spain, or
as Arabic sources claim to protect Ibn
Rushd from attacks by people at the
request of religious leaders.
[1] Averroes, detail of the
fourteenth-century Florentine artist
Andrea Bonaiuto's Triunfo de Santo
Tomás. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:AverroesColor.jpg
[2] Averroes, a closeup of The School
of Athens, a fresco by Raffaello
Sanzio, 1509. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Averroes_closeup.jpg
[1202 AD]
and Italian mathematician, writes
"Liber Abaci" ("Book of the Abacus") in
Latin, which explains the use of
Indian-Arabic numerals, how position
affects the value (positional or
place-value notation) and the use of
the number zero. Adelard of Bath had
used arabic numerals, but this book in
particular will contribute to the end
in a few centuries of the "Roman
numerals" which the Greeks and Romans
had used (although Roman numerals are
still rarely used).
Fibonacci's name is known in modern
times mainly because of the Fibonacci
sequence, a series of numbers where the
next number is the sum of the last two
numbers, which is derived from a
problem in the Liber abaci.
[1] Leonardo Pisano Fibonacci [t nice
to find source an date of image] PD
source: http://www.mathekiste.de/fibonac
ci/fibonacci.jpg
[2] Leonardo da Pisa, detto Fibonacci
(1170 -1250) PD
source: http://alpha01.dm.unito.it/perso
nalpages/cerruti/primi/primigrandi/fibon
acci.html
[1209 AD]
England is founded.
Early records suggest, in
this year scholars leave Oxford after a
dispute with local townsfolk over a
killing.
[1] The town centre of Cambridge with
the University Church (Great St Mary's)
on the right, the Senate House of
Cambridge University on the left, and
Gonville and Caius College in the
middle at the back. CC
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:CambridgeTownCentre.jpg
[2] Photograph of Cambridge colleges
seen from St Johns College Chapel PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Cam_colls_from_johns.jpg
[1212 AD]
founded. This is the earliest and
oldest University in Spain.
region of Castile-Leon,in northern
Spain.
[1] Statue of Cervantes in the
University Square, opposite to the
Faculty of Law. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Cervantes_Valladolid_lou.jpg
[06/15/1215 AD]
limiting the power of the King of
England.
[1] # Magna Carta. This is not the
original charter signed by John of
England, which has been lost (though
four copies survive), but the version
issued in 1225 by Henry III of England
and preserved in the UK's National
Archives. # Quelle:
http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/pathw
ays/citizenship/images/citizen_subject/m
agna_carta.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Magna_Carta.jpg
[2] John of England signs Magna
Carta Image from Cassell's History of
England - Century Edition - published
circa 1902 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:King_John_of_England_signs_the_Magna_
Carta_-_Illustration_from_Cassell%27s_Hi
story_of_England_-_Century_Edition_-_pub
lished_circa_1902.jpg
[1215 AD]
all Jewish people in Catholic lands to
wear distinguishing labels or cloths in
addition to ordering Jewish people to
be confined in ghettos.
[1218 AD]
founded.
[1] Plateresque facade of the
University GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:University_of_Salamanca.jpg
[1220 AD]
founded.
région of the south of France.
[1] The University of Montpellier is
one of the oldest in France, having
been granted a charter in 1220 by
Cardinal Conrad von Urach and confirmed
by Pope Nicholas IV in a papal bull of
1289. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.bbc.co.uk/herefordand
worcester/content/image_galleries/montpe
llier_photo_gallery.shtml?17
[1222 AD]
Università degli Studi di Padova,
UNIPD) is founded. Padua is the second
oldest University in Italy after the
University of Bologna. The university
is founded in 1222 when a large group
of students and professors leave the
University of Bologna in search of more
academic freedom.
[1] Ornate ceiling in the conference
auditorium. University of Padua, Padua,
Italy, January 31, 2003 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.big6.com/showarticle.
php?id=342
[2] University of Padua, anatomical
theater, from Jacob Tomasini''s
Gymnasium Patavinum, 1654. Major, 327,
347 PD
source: http://clendening.kumc.edu/dc/rm
/major_17th.htm
[06/05/1224 AD]
II is founded by the emperor of the
Holy Roman Empire Frederick II.
[1] Main building, university of
Naples, Federico II PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Uninap.JPG
[1227 AD]
court, translates from Arabic to Latin
many of the Arabic translations and
commentaries of Aristotle's works by
people such as Ibn Rushd (Averroes) and
Ibn Sina (Avicenna).
Frederick II urges Scot to
spread his translations to the
universities of Europe.
[1228 AD]
light published by Robert Grosseteste
(GrOSTeST), (CE c1175-1253)
In his work "De Luce" ("On Light"),
English scholar, Robert Grosseteste
begins with: (translated from Latin)
"The first corporeal form which some
call corporeity is in my opinion
light.".
"Corporeal" is defined as "material".
written)
[1] Portrait of Robert Grosseteste,
Bishop of Lincoln, seated with mitre
and crozier; his right hand raised in
blessing. Produced in England - 13th
century Record Number:
c6400-05 Shelfmark: Harley
3860 Page Folio Number:
f.48 Description: [Detail] Portrait
of Robert Grosseteste, Bishop of
Lincoln, seated with mitre and crozier;
his right hand raised in blessing. The
Articles of the Christian Faith
according to Bishop Grosseteste, in
French verse Title of Work:
- Author: Grosseteste,
Robert Illustrator: - Production:
England; 13th
century Language/Script: Latin and
French / - [t notice the crossed eyes,
perhaps reputation as insane for
proscience views?] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Grosseteste_bishop.jpg
[2] Record Number: 19885 Shelfmark:
Royal 6 E. V Page Folio Number:
f.6 Description: [Miniature only]
Initial 'A', portrait of Robert
Grosseteste, Bishop of Lincoln. The
beginning of one of the bishop's
sermons Title of Work: Works of
Robert Grosseteste, Bishop of
Lincoln Author: Grosseteste,
Robert Illustrator: - Production:
England; 15th
century Language/Script: Latin /
- PD
source: http://www.imagesonline.bl.uk/br
itishlibrary/controller/textsearch?text=
grosseteste&y=0&x=0&startid=31330&width=
4&height=2&idx=2
[1229 AD]
(TUlUS) is founded.
The formation of the
University of Toulouse is imposed on
Count Raymond VII as a part of the
Treaty of Paris in 1229 ending the
crusade against the Albigensians.
Suspected of sympathizing with the
heretics, Raymond VII has to finance
the teaching of theology.
[1] Toulouse, le Capitole COPYRIGHTED
FRANCE
source: http://w3.univ-tlse2.fr/pac/iclc
e.toulouse/photos/index.1.jpg
[1233 AD]
great) (1193-1280), German scholar and
teacher of Thomas Aquinas, recognizes
that the Milky Way is composed of many
stars, compiles a list of a hundred
minerals, and recognizes the existence
of fossils.
[1] Albertus Magnus (fresco, 1352,
Treviso, Italy) by Tommaso da Modena
(1326-1379) 1352 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:AlbertusMagnus.jpg
[2] Painting by Joos (Justus) van
Gent, Urbino, ~ 1475 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Albertus_Magnus_Painting_by_Joos_van_
Gent.jpeg
[1234 AD]
[1] English: Jikji or ''Selected
Teachings of Buddhist Sages and Seon
Masters'', published in 1377, Korea
during the Goryeo Dynasty. It is the
earliest known book printed with
movable metal type. 한국어:
백운화상초록불조직지심체요
(白雲和尙抄錄佛祖直指心體
節, 간단히
불조직지심체요절,
직지심체요절, 직지)은
백운화상 경한이 선(禪)의
요체를 깨닫는 데에 필요한
내용을 뽑아 1372년에 펴낸
불교 서적으로, 상·하권으로
이루어져 있다. 원나라에서
받아온 불조직지심체요절의
내용을 대폭 늘려 상·하
2권으로 엮은 것이다. 전
세계에 남아 있는 금속
활자로 인쇄된 책 중에서
가장 오래된 것으로, 2001년
9월 4일 《승정원일기》와
함께 유네스코
세계기록유산에 등재되었다.
현존하는 것은 하권 1책
뿐인데, 1900년대 말 콜랭 드
프랑시 주한 프랑스 공사가
프랑스로 가지고 갔으며 현재
프랑스 국립도서관에
소장되어 있다. 이는 독일
구텐베르크의 활자보다 78년
이상 앞서 편찬되었다. Date
1377 Source Bibliotheque
Nationale de France. Source Author
English: Authored by Baegun Hwaseng
(1289-1374), a master of Seon Buddhism
in Korea, and published by his
students, Seokchan and Daljam in
1377. 한국어: 선종의 대가인
백운화상 (1289년-1374)이 지은
책을 그의 제자인 석찬과
달잠이 1377년에
출판하였다. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/9f/Korean_book-Jikji-Sel
ected_Teachings_of_Buddhist_Sages_and_Se
on_Masters-1377.jpg
[1234 AD]
Roman Emperor, (1194-1250), expreses
antireligious views, funds and
corresponds with many scholars.
Frederick II keeps company with people
of any race and religion. Frederick II
keeps a traveling zoo that includes
monkeys, camels, a giraffe and an
elephant.
Frederick writes "De arte venandi cum
avibus", a standard work on falconry
based entirely on his own experimental
research. In this book Frederick
describes hundreds of kinds of birds,
their anatomy, physiology, and
behavior. The book also includes
illustrations.
Asimov describes Frederick II as
atheist and makes no distinctions
between religions, although in 1220
issues laws against heretics. Frederick
is supposed to have joked that Moses,
Christ, and Muhammad were three
impostors who had themselves been
fooled.
Frederick is in his own time as "Stupor
mundi" ("wonder of the world"), and is
said to speak nine languages and be
literate in seven at a time when some
monarchs and nobles cannot read or
write. Frederick is a ruler very much
ahead of his time, being an avid patron
of science and the arts.
[1] * Frederick II and his falcon.
* From his book De arte venandi cum
avibus (''The art of hunting with
birds). From a manuscript in Biblioteca
Vaticana, Pal. lat 1071), late 13th
century PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Frederick_II_and_eagle.jpg
[2] L'Islam in Italia, DeAgostini -
Rizzoli periodici An image from an old
copy of De arte venandi cum avibus PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:De_Venandi_com_Avibus.jpg
[1240 AD]
founded.
[1] University of Siena COPYRIGHTED
ITALY
source: http://www.elet.polimi.it/confer
ences/siena2003/home2.html
[1242 AD]
first person in Europe to give exact
directions for making gunpowder, in a
letter "De nullitate magiæ" at
Oxford.
Bacon may have learned about gunpowder
from an Arab trader.
Bacon writes that if
confined, gunpowder would have great
power and might be useful in war, but
fails to speculate further. The use of
gunpowder in guns in Europe happens
early in the next century.
[1] Roger Bacon Library of
Congress PD
source: http://www.answers.com/roger%20b
acon
[2] Statue of Roger Bacon in the
Oxford University Museum of Natural
History. 2004 GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Roger-bacon-statue.jpg
[1259 AD]
Muhammad ibn Muhammad ibn al-Hasan
al-Tusi) (CE 1201-1274), as scientific
adviser to Hülegü Khan (c.
1217-1265), grandson of Genghis Khan,
al-Tusi convinces Khan to construct an
observatory in Maragheh (now in
Azerbaijan).
[1] Stamp issued in 1956 by Iran
picturing Nasir al-Din Tusi,
astronomer Source scan of stamp 30
May 2006 Date issued 1956 Author
Iran PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Nasir_al-Din_Tusi.jpg
[2] Tusi couple - 13th century CE
sketch by Nasir al-Din Tusi. Generates
a linear motion as a sum of two
circular motions. Invented for Tusi's
planetary model. Online source:
Pearson Prentice Hall Companion Website
for Astronomy Today Original source:
Library of Congress Vatican Exhibit
(Vat. Arabic ms 319, fol. 28 verso) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Tusi_couple.jpg
[1263 AD]
an Italian physician, writes
"Consilia", which describes clinical
case studies, and writes one of the
first health works in the vernacular
Italian language "Sulla conservazione
della salute" a family health
encyclopedia.
[1] Taddeo Alderotti PD
source: http://www3.unibo.it/avl/english
/biogr/bio2.htm
[2] Biografie di medici medievali [t
Biography of medieval medicine, it
looks just like a contemporary image of
some physicians, maybe at a health
school?] PD
source: http://www.accademiajr.it/medweb
/biografie.html
[01/20/1265 AD]
members are required to be elected,
formed by Simon de Montfort
(c1208-1265) without royal approval,
meets in England.
[1] Relief of Simon de Montfort, by
Gaetano Cecere (1950), in United States
House of Representatives Chamber.
Agency: Architect of the Capitol PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Demontfort.jpg
[1265 AD]
(c1225-1274), an Italian theologian,
with others promote the idea first
identified by Ibn Rushd (Averroes) that
reason and faith can coexist and each
operate according to their own laws.
This is a step forward in the eventual
complete replacement of religion with
science, faith with logic.
[1] Depiction of St. Thomas Aquinas
from the Demidoff Altarpiece by Carlo
Crivelli. [t bald head is shaved or
naturally like this?] Depiction of St.
Thomas Aquinas from The Demidoff
Altarpiece by Carlo Crivelli Name:
Thomas Aquinas Birth: ca. 1225
(Castle of Roccasecca, near Aquino,
Italy) Death: 7 March 1274 (Fossanova
Abbey, Lazio, Italy) School/tradition:
Scholasticism, Founder of
Thomism Main interests: Metaphysics
(incl. Theology), Logic, Mind,
Epistemology, Ethics, Politics Notable
ideas: Five Proofs for God's
Existence, Principle of double
effect Influences: Aristotle,
Albertus Magnus, Boethius, Eriugena,
Anselm, Averroes, Maimonides, St.
Augustine,Al-Ghazzali Influenced:
Giles of Rome, Godfrey of Fontaines,
Jacques Maritain, G. E. M. Anscombe,
John Locke, Dante PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:St-thomas-aquinas.jpg
[2] St. Thomas Aquinas, by Fra
Angelico Title: ''Saint Thomas
Aquinas'' Artist: Fra Angelico (1395
â'' 1455) Description: During the
13th century, Saint Thomas Aquinas
sought to reconcile Aristotelian
philosophy with Augustinian theology.
Aquinas employed both reason and faith
in the study of metaphysics, moral
philosophy, and religion. While Aquinas
accepted the existence of God on faith,
he offered five proofs of Godâs
existence to support such a
belief. Source:
http://www.cptryon.org/prayer/special/gu
idaquin.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Saint_Thomas_Aquinas.jpg
[1267 AD]
scholar, writes "Opus Majus", an 840
page book in Latin, an encyclopedia of
all aspects of natural science, from
grammar and logic to mathematics,
physics, and philosophy. "Opus Majus"
is the first work that proposes
mechanically propelled ships and
carriages. "Opus Majus" also mentions
the use of spectacles which soon come
into use (although magnifying glasses
for reading are already in use in China
and Europe at this time), and describes
the principles of reflection,
refraction, and spherical aberration.
"Opus Majus" contains what may be the
first description of a telescope.
Bacon suggests that a balloon of thin
copper sheet filled with "liquid fire"
would float in the air as many light
objects do in water and seriously
studies the problem of flying in a
machine with flapping wings.
Bacon denounces magic, but believes in
astrology and alchemy.
Bacon suggests that the earth can be
circumnavigated. Ancient Greek people
such as the Pythagoreans viewed the
earth as a sphere and Eratosthenes was
the first to accurately calculate the
size of the spherical earth. Columbus
will quote this suggestion from Bacon
in a letter to Ferdinand and Isabella
of Spain. In 300 years Magellan will be
the first to circumnavigate the earth.
Bacon estimates that the outermost
heavenly sphere, the sphere with the
stars is 130 million miles (units) from
earth, far short of the actual distance
to any star other than the sun, but
such a guess is rare, and probably
inspires other people to wonder.
Following Grosseteste, Bacon constructs
magnifying glasses.
Bacon writes that lenses can correct
the vision of those who are farsighted
(cannot see close objects). In Europe
eyeglasses first appeared in Italy,
their introduction being attributed to
Alessandro di Spina of Florence.
Bacon recognizes the flaw in the Julian
calendar.
Between 1777 and 1779 Bacon will be
imprisoned and his works ordered
supressed. His greatest book "Opus
Majus" will not be printed until 1733.
[1] Roger Bacon Library of
Congress PD
source: http://www.answers.com/roger%20b
acon
[2] Statue of Roger Bacon in the
Oxford University Museum of Natural
History. 2004 GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Roger-bacon-statue.jpg
[1268 AD]
iron or bronze) first appeared in the
wars between the Mongols and the Song
Dynasty (1268-1279).
[1] A Mongol bomb thrown against a
charging Japanese samurai during the
Mongol Invasions of Japan,
1281. Suenaga facing Mongol arrows and
bombs. From MokoShuraiEkotoba
(蒙古襲来絵
;詞), circa 1293, 13th
century. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Mooko-Suenaga.jpg
[08/08/1269 AD]
Maricourt, (Latin: Petrus Peregrinus de
Maharncuria) ("Peter the Pilgrim from
Maricourt") (PruGrINuS) (c1240-?), a
French scholar, writes the first known
treatise describing the properties of
magnets. Pelerin tries to build a motor
to keep a planetarium designed by
Archimedes moving for a period of time
by using magnetic force (in my opinion
the magnetic force is actually the
electric force). This is the first
recorded suggestion that magnetic force
might be used as a source of power like
water, and air. Peregrinus attempts to
prove that magnets can be used to
realize perpetual motion. I think some
time in the future, if not already,
permanent magnets, arranged perhaps in
a circle, may constantly turn another
magnet or piece of metal, as a virutal
perpetual motion machine, because the
source of magnetic force in a permanent
magnet appears to last for a very long
time and may be able to even overpower
the friction of turning. The force of
gravity is another force that appears
to last for many millions of years.
Peregrinus writes his treatise to a
friend while serving as an engineer in
the army of Charles I of Anjou during a
siege of Lucera (in Italy) in a
"crusade" sanctioned by the Pope. In
this treatise Peregrinus describes how
to determine the north and south pole
of a bar magnet (explain how), that
like poles repel each other and
opposite poles attract each other, and
that a pole cannot be isolated by
breaking a magnet, because each half is
then a complete magnet with both a
north and south pole.
Peregrinus improves the
compass by placing the magnetic needle
on a pivot instead of allowing the
needle to float on a piece of cork, and
surrounding the pivot point with a
circular scale to allow direction to be
read more accurately. This improvement
will help those navigating and
exploring.
Peregrinus is one of few medeival
scholars to practice experiment.
My feeling is that a permanent magnet
has a current running through it
creating an electric field which may be
the actual explanation for the
so-called magnetic field of a permanent
magnet.
[1] Pivoting compass needle in a 14th
century handcopy of Peter's Epistola de
magnete (1269) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Epistola-de-magnete.jpg
[12/??/1270 AD]
enacted by Bishop Étienne (Stephen)
Tempier, which lists thirteen doctrines
held by "radical Aristotelians" as
heretical and that anybody that
practices or teaches them would be
faced with the punishment of the
Inquisition. The banned propositions
are related to Ibn Rushd's (Latin
Averroes') theory of the soul and the
doctrine of monopsychism (that all
humans share one eternal soul, mind, or
intellect). Other propositions banned
included Aristotle's theory of God as a
passive Unmoved Mover.
Conservative forces in
the Church attempted to use the
Condemnation for political purposes to
stop, or at least control and contain,
supposed threats to questions of
theology posed by Aristotelian reason.
In particular the Condemnation targeted
such radical scholars as Siger of
Brabant, a teacher at the University of
Paris that is one of the inventors and
major proponents of Averroism,
Averrois' interpretation of Aristotle.
In 7 years
Tempier will enact a second list of
condemnations, the Condemnation of
1277.
[1275 AD]
1235-1311), Spanish alchemist and
physician, is the first to recognize
that wood burning with poor ventilation
gives rise to poisonous fumes, so
Villanova is the first to describe
carbon monoxide. Some claim that
Villanova is the first to prepare
(distill?) pure alcohol.
[1] Arnaldus de Villanova PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Arnaldus_de_Villanova.jpeg
[1277 AD]
Roger Bacon (c1220-1292), Bacon is
placed under house arrest by Jerome of
Ascoli, the Minister-General of the
Franciscan Order (later to be Pope
Nicholas IV), and Bacon's works are
ordered supressed. His greatest book
"Opus Majus" will not be printed until
1733.
[1] Roger Bacon Library of
Congress PD
source: http://www.answers.com/roger%20b
acon
[2] Statue of Roger Bacon in the
Oxford University Museum of Natural
History. 2004 GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Roger-bacon-statue.jpg
[1277 AD]
enacted by Bishop Tempier of Paris.
These Condemnations list 219 banned
propositions. Propositions banned
included statements on Aristotle's
"Physics": that God could not make
several worlds or universes; that God
could not move a spherical heavens with
a rectilinear motion; that God could
not make two bodies exist in the same
place at once.
12 of these propositions are theses of
Aquinas and these condemnations will
eventually lead to a direct attack on
the works of Thomas Aquinas.
[1280 AD]
[1] Detail of a portrait of Hugh de
Provence, painted by Tomaso da Modena
in 1352 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Hugh_specs.jpg
[1281 AD]
1236-1311), student of Nasir al-Din
al-Tusi, writes a commentary on Ibn
Sin'a "Canon", and composes numerous
works on optics, geometry, astronomy,
geography and philosophy. In "The Limit
of Accomplishment concerning Knowledge
of the Heavens", Qutb al-Din also
discusses the possibility of
heliocentrism.
[1] Photo taken from medieval
manuscript by Qotbeddin Shirazi. The
image depicts an epicyclic planetary
model. Name: Title: Birth:
1236CE death: 1311CE Maddhab:
Sufi Main interests: Mathematics,
Astronomy, medicine, science and
philosophy works: Almagest, The Royal
Present ,Pearly Crown, etc Influences:
Nasir al-Din Tusi, Ibn al-Haytham and
Suhrawardi Picture taken by Zereshk
from old manuscript of Qotbeddin
Shirazi's treatise. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ghotb2.jpg
[1290 AD]
(Portuguese: Universidade de Coimbra)
is founded.
[1] The tower of the University of
Coimbra (left) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Coimbra_University_Tower_2.jpg
[1297 AD]
(1257-c1315), an Italian physician,
writes "Conciliator", in which he
describes the brain as the source of
nerves, and the heart as the source of
the blood vessels. D'Abano recognizes
that air has weight, and makes a very
accurate estimate of the length of a
year. D'Abano will be brought twice
before the Inquisition for heresy,
magic, and atheism because he rejects
the miraculous aspects of the gospel
tales. D'Abano is acquitted the first
time and dies in prison during the
course of the second trial.
[1] Pietro d'Abano PD
source: http://www.filosofico.net/pietro
abano.htm
[2] Pietro D'Abano A Rural
Dalliance Illustration from an
illuminated manuscript of his
Commentary on Aristotle's Problems,
1315 PD
source: http://www.androphile.org/previe
w/Museum/Europe/pietro_abano-dalliance.h
tml
[1298 AD]
explorer, writes a book "Il milione"
("the Millions"), known in English as
"the Travels of Marco Polo", describing
the use of coal, paper money and
asbestos while in prison.
Columbus will be
inspired by Polo's book into seeking
the riches of the Indies.
Marco Polo is one of
the few people from Europe to visit
China.
[1] Marco Polo in Tatar attire. The
Granger Collection, New York PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-13534?articleTypeId=1
[2] Marco Polo leaving Venice on his
way to China (Platt 97) PD
source: http://www.susqu.edu/history/med
trav/MarcoPolo/images.htm
[1300 AD]
[1] By Jason Hopwood CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/01/Salisbury_02.jpg
[2] The striking train of the
Salisbury cathedral clock CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/8/8a/Salisbury_striking_train.j
pg
[1303 AD]
Sapienza" (Italian: Università degli
Studi di Roma "La Sapienza") is
founded. The University of Rome La
Sapienza is the largest European
university and the most ancient of
Rome's three public universities. In
Italian, Sapienza means "wisdom" or
"knowledge".
La Sapienza is founded in 1303 by Pope
Boniface VIII, as a Studium for
ecclesiastical studies more under his
control than the universities of
Bologna and Padua.
[1] Church of Sant'Ivo alla Sapienza,
by Borromini, originally a chapel of
the La Sapienza see. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Borromini_SantIvo.jpg
[2] The statue of Minerva in la
Sapienza University, Rome PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:MinervaSapienza.JPG
[09/08/1308 AD]
(Italian: Università degli Studi di
Perugia) is founded.
One of the "free"
universities of Italy, the University
of Perugia is erected into a studium
generale on September 8, 1308, by the
Bull "Super specula" of Clement V.
[1] Logo for U of Perudia COPYRIGHTED
EDU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Unipg.gif
[2] ''Perugia is a poetic, university
city, one of the beautiful, learned
cities of old Italy.'' George Sand,
1855. COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://www.sbu.edu/images/pics_g
allery_2.jpg
[10/24/1310 AD]
sounds the ear hears.
[1] Description Deutsch: de:William
Byrd English: en:William Byrd -
c.1540-1623. Date not provided by
uploader Source
http://www.renaissancemusic.pe.kr/m
usician_p/william%20byrd.htm Author
Vandergucht (Michael van der Gucht
??) Permission (Reusing this file)
guessed, creator of the picture is
most likely dead for more than 70 years
(Byrd lived during 16th/17th
century) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/bf/William_Byrd.jpg
[2] 1807 engraving of camera lucida in
use Obtained from the university
website
http://www.usc.edu/schools/annenberg/asc
/projects/comm544/library/
images/448.jpg, image edited for size
and clarity. I emailed the contact at
that site and said >
http://www.usc.edu/schools/annenberg/asc
/projects/comm544/library/
images/448.jpg > is described as an
1807 picture of a camera lucida. Can
you confirm > that it isn't under
copyright? Is it OK with you if I use
it in a > Wikipedia (free Internet
encyclopedia) article on the camera
lucida? I got this
reply Daniel, This work is not
copyrighted, so far as I know--and
after 196 years, I'm quite certain any
original copyright would have long ago
expired, don't you think? Your own use
is entirely up to you--I wish you every
success. -- Jim Beniger PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=W
[10/24/1310 AD]
sounds the ear hears.
[1] 1807 engraving of camera lucida in
use Obtained from the university
website
http://www.usc.edu/schools/annenberg/asc
/projects/comm544/library/
images/448.jpg, image edited for size
and clarity. I emailed the contact at
that site and said >
http://www.usc.edu/schools/annenberg/asc
/projects/comm544/library/
images/448.jpg > is described as an
1807 picture of a camera lucida. Can
you confirm > that it isn't under
copyright? Is it OK with you if I use
it in a > Wikipedia (free Internet
encyclopedia) article on the camera
lucida? I got this
reply Daniel, This work is not
copyrighted, so far as I know--and
after 196 years, I'm quite certain any
original copyright would have long ago
expired, don't you think? Your own use
is entirely up to you--I wish you every
success. -- Jim Beniger PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=W
[2] Optics of Wollaston camera
lucida From W. H. C. Bartlett,
Elements of Natural Philosophy, 1852,
A. S. Barnes and Company. Photocopy
kindly provided by Tom Greenslade,
Department of Physics, Kenyon College.
This image was scanned from the
photocopy and cleaned up by Daniel P.
B. Smith. This version is licensed by
Daniel P. B. Smith under the terms of
the Wikipedia Copyright. PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=W
[10/24/1310 AD]
thought-audio.
The exact date, time, location,
invention, and even inventor are not
clear because of the secrecy that still
surrounds this technology.
[1310 AD]
directly ("direct neuron writing").
[1310 AD]
alchemist writing under the name of
Jabir (Ibn Haiyan), is the first to
describe sulfuric acid and other strong
acids. Before this viniger is the
strongest acid known.
[1310 AD]
remotely ("remote neuron writing").
[1312 AD]
thought-image.
[1312 AD]
thought-image.
[1316 AD]
lUTSE) (c1275-1326), an Italian
anatomist, does his own dissections
(unlike previous physicians who
lectured from a high platform while an
assistant conducted the actual autopsy,
which continues after Mondino for 200
years until Vesalius), and in 1316
writes "Anathomia Mundini", the first
book devoted entirely to anatomy.
Mondino De' Luzzi makes advances in
describing the anatomy of the organs in
the reproductive system.
[1] Mondino da Luzzi supervising an
autopsy Johannes de Ketham
Fasciculo di Medicina, Venice, 1493,
engraving National Library of
Medicine, USA PD
source: http://www.afip.org/Departments/
HepGastr_dept/sobin/chap2.htm
[2] Autopsy with prosector and
physician Anathomia, Mondino da
Luzzi, 1495 engraving National
Library of Medicine, USA PD
source: http://www.afip.org/Departments/
HepGastr_dept/sobin/chap3.htm
[1317 AD]
c1285-1349), English scholar, correctly
rejects Plato's view that observed
objects are only imperfect copies of
reality, opting for the view that
objects we observe are real, and that
Plato's philosophy is abstraction.
Ockham (skeptical of the constant
adding of more items required to make
theories work) writes that "Entities
must not needlessly be multiplied",
which will come to be called "Okham's
razor", basically meaning that of two
arguments the simplest is probably the
more accurate.
[1] William of Ockham (also Occam or
any of several other spellings) (ca.
1285â''1349) was an English
Franciscan friar and philosopher, from
Ockham, a small village in Surrey, near
East Horsley. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Occam.jpg
[2] Sketch labelled 'frater Occham
iste', from a manuscipt of Ockham's
'Summa Logicae', 1341 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:William_of_Ockham_-_Logica_-_1341.jpg
[1327 AD]
of Sankoré is founded.
The Mali Empire gained direct control
over the city of Timbuktu in 1324
during the reign of Mansa Kankan Musa.
A royal lady financed Musa'a plans to
turn Sankoré into a world class
learning institution with professors on
par with any outside of Africa. Upon
returning from his famous Hajj, Musa
brought the Granada architect Abu Ishaq
es Saheli from Egypt to build mosques
and palaces throughout the empire.
[1] Doors of the Sankore Madrash WIKI
COMMONS (GNU)
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Medersa_Sankore.jpg
[1335 AD]
founded.
[1] The building of the Ancient Faculty
of Medicine and Sciences in Zaragoza,
now called Paraninfo. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Zaragoza_-_Antigua_Facultad_de_Medici
na_-_Fachada.JPG
[2] Coat of arms of the University of
Zaragoza COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Unizar.gif
[1335 AD]
(c1295-c1358), French philosopher,
revises Aristotle's theory of motion,
which states that an object needs a
continuous force to keep the object
moving, arguing instead that an initial
force on an object is all that is
needed and that the motion then
continues indefinitely.
John Philoponus (6th c. CE)
had reached a similar conclusion in his
commentary on Aristotle's "Physics", as
had Hipparchos (2nd c. BCE) and
Synesios (4th c. CE) before him.
Buridan
then applies this concept to the
so-called spheres of heaven, saying
once put into motion by a god, the
motion of the spheres would continue
forever, and do not need angels to keep
them moving (as, shockingly, is the
common belief, among those who care).
[1] The Index Librorum Prohibitorum
(''List of Prohibited Books'') is a
list of publications which the Catholic
Church censored for being a danger to
itself and its members. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Index_Librorum_Prohibitorum_1.jpg
[2] Jean Buridan (1300-1358) âO
dinheiro, portanto, é um bem do
mercado, e o valor desse dinheiro, como
nos outros casos de bens do mercado,
deve ser mensurado pela necessidade
humana. Os valores dos bens de troca
são proporcionados pela necessidade
humanaâ. PD
source: http://www.cieep.org.br/images/b
uridanbio.jpg
[1336 AD]
founded.
[1] aerial image of U of
Camerino COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://www.unicam.it/discichi/cr
istalliteam/camerino-01.bmp
[2] U of Camerino COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://www.unicam.it/discichi/cr
istalliteam/dove.htm
[09/03/1343 AD]
founded.
The University of Pisa is founded by an
edict of Pope Clement VI on this day,
although there had been lectures on law
in Pisa since the 11th century.
[1] The Tower of Pisa. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lea
ning_Tower_of_Pisa
[2] Miracoli? COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://krasnow.gmu.edu/L-Neuron/
ascoli/miracoli.jpg
[04/07/1348 AD]
is founded. Charles University (Czech:
Univerzita Karlova; Latin: Universitas
Carolina) is the oldest university in
the Czech Republic.
On April 7 of 1348, Charles I, the King
of Bohemia (later known as Charles IV,
Holy Roman Emperor) issues a Golden
Bull (transcription of the Latin
original) granting the University of
Prague its privileges. A minority
however sees the papal bull of Pope
Clement VI on January 26 of 1347 as
primary.
Charles University is based on the
model of the University of Paris.
[1] Seal of the Charles University of
Prague. Source:
http://www.evropa.wz.cz/Czech_rep/pages/
mesta/imagescr/pecet.u.karlovy.jpg COPY
RIGHTED EDU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Seal_of_Charles_University_of_Prague.
png
[2] Monument to the founder of the
university, Emperor Charles IV GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Charles_IV._2003-12-24.jpg
[1360 AD]
c1320-1382), French Roman Catholic
bishop and scholar understands the
movement of uniformly accelerated
motion.
[1] Nicole Oresme Miniature of Nicole
Oresmes Traité de l''espere,
Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris, France,
fonds français 565, fol. 1r. from:
http://www.math.uqam.ca/_charbonneau/GRM
S04/RepresentBasMA.htm Portrait of
Nicole Oresme: Miniature of Nicole
Oresme's Traité de l''espere,
Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris, France,
fonds français 565, fol. 1r. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Oresme-Nicole.jpg
[2] Nicole Oresme Miniature of Nicole
Oresmes Traité de l''espere,
Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris, France,
fonds français 565, fol. 1r. PD
source: http://www.nicole-oresme.com/sei
ten/chronology.html
[1361 AD]
Università degli Studi di Pavia,
UNIPV) is founded.
An edict issued by King Lotarius quotes
a higher education institution in Pavia
as already established 825 CE. This
institution, mainly devoted to
ecclesiastical and civil law as well as
to divinity studies. The University of
Pavia is officially established as a
studium generale by Emperor Charles IV
in 1361.
[1] Box 1
source: http://www.nature.com/nrm/journa
l/v2/n10/slideshow/nrm1001-776a_bx1.html
[1364 AD]
Uniwersytet Jagielloński) is
founded.
Jagiellonian University is the first
university in Poland and is the second
oldest university in Central Europe
behind The University of Prague.
For much of
its history, this university is known
as the Cracow Academy, but in the 1800s
the university is renamed to
commemorate the Jagiellonian dynasty of
Polish kings.
Jagiellonian University is
founded by Casimir III the Great as
Akademia Krakowska.
[1] Monument to Nicolaus Copernicus
next to the Jagiellonian University's
Collegium Novum (New College) in
Kraków CC
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Kopernikus_nikolaus_krakau.jpg
[2] The Jagiellonian University in
the south of Poland is a modern
university. The city of Crakow
attracts many young people, especially
the main square is a popular meeting
place COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.phlinz.at/typo3/filea
dmin/paedak_upload/technik/Crakow.jpg
[03/12/1365 AD]
Universität Wien) is founded.
The University is
founded March 12, 1365 by Duke Rudolph
IV and his brothers Albert III and
Leopold III.
The University of Vienna is the
oldest University in the
German-speaking world.
[1] The University of Vienna main
building at the Ringstraße in
Vienna CC
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Universit%C3%A4t_Vienna_June_2006_164
.jpg
[2] Interior view of the main library
reading hall (Hauptlesesaal) of the
University of Vienna PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Uni_Wien_Bibliothek%2C_Vienna_2.jpg
[03/12/1367 AD]
Hungary is founded.
The University of Pécs is
the oldest university in Hungary. The
Anjou king Louis the Great establishes
it in 1367.
[1] Humanities building at University
of P�cs COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://www.fredonia.edu/departme
nt/communication/schwalbe/hungary.htm
[1379 AD]
al-Din 'Abd al-Rahman ibn Muhammad ibn
Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr Muhammad ibn
al-Hasan Ibn Khaldun) (Arabic: ابو
زيد عبد الرحمن بن
محمد بن خلدون) (CE
1332-1406), writes "Muqaddimah"
("Introduction") an introductory to the
philsophy of history, and starts a very
large history, "Kitab al-'Ibar", the
best single source on the history of
Islamic North Africa.
what is now the town of Frenda,
Algeria
[1] Ibn Khaldun on a Tunisian postage
stamp Name: Ibn Khaldun Birth: 27
May, 1332/732 AH Death: 19 March
1406/808 AH School/tradition: Main
interests: History, Historiography,
Demography, Economics, Philosophy of
History, Sociology Notable ideas:
Asabiyah Influences: Influenced:
Al-Maqrizi PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Khaldun.jpg
[2] Statue of Ibn Khaldoun in
Tunis 2004 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ibn_Khaldoun.jpg
[1386 AD]
Heidelberg (German
Ruprecht-Karls-Universität Heidelberg)
is founded.
The University of Heidelberg is
founded by Rupert I, Count Palatine of
the Rhine, in order to provide
faculties for the study of philosophy,
theology, jurisprudence, and medicine.
[1] University of Heidelberg Institute
for Physics COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.flickr.com/photos/rai
nerebert/523892158/in/set-72157600292990
475/
[2] University of Heidelberg
University Library COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.flickr.com/photos/rai
nerebert/523890448/in/set-72157600292990
475/
[03/04/1391 AD]
(Italian: Università degli Studi di
Ferrara) in Italy is founded.
[1] COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://www.unife.it/ateneo/unife
_si_presenta
[03/04/1398 AD]
established in 1398 to offer prayers
and memorials to Confucius and his
disciples, and to promote the study of
the Confucian canon. Seonggyungwan is
located in the capital Hanseong,
modern-day Seoul. It follows the
example of the Goryeo-period Gukjagam,
which in its later years is also known
by the name "Seonggyungwan." The
Sungkyunkwan will be Korea's foremost
institution of the highest learning
under the Joseon dynasty education
system.
Seoul and Suwon, South Korea
[1] Sign for the 600th Anniversary Hall
on Sungkyunkwan University's Seoul
campus. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Sungkyunkwan_600.jpg
[2] Official logo of Sungkyunkwan
University, South Korea. Retrieved Oct
12, 2005 from university website.
Background transparent
version. COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Skku_logo.png
[1400 AD]
interest in the classics becomes less.
Mostafa El-Abbadi sites the Arab
adoption of a popular problem solving
technique of posing problems and
solutions initiated by Aristotle,
instead of exploring other techniques
including explaining observational
phenomena as being a major reason for
this failure for Arab science to
progress, although I think the brutal
intolerance for science by a religious
majority may have contributed to this
failure too. The Arab people accept
Ptolomy's earth centered universe and
progress no further.
[1410 AD]
(Scottish Gaelic: Oilthigh Chill
Rìmhinn), the oldest university in
Scotland is founded.
[1] St Salvator's Chapel, by Malcolm
McFadyen GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:St_Salvator%27s_Chapel.JPG
[1420 AD]
a Portuguese prince, establishes an
observatory, and tries unsuccessfully
to circumnavigate Africa as Hanno did
2000 years before.
[1] Prince Henry the Navigator PD
source: http://www.etsu.edu/cas/history/
resources/Private/Faculty/Fac_To1877Chap
terDocFiles/ChapterImages/Ch2PrinceHenry
theNavigator.jpg
[2] Henry the Navigator PD
source: http://www.nndb.com/people/995/0
00094713/
[1420 AD]
name: Muhammad Taragay) (1394-1449), a
Mongol astronomer, founds a university
(madrasa) in Samarkand.
[1] Ulugh Beg PD
source: http://www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/
~history/BigPictures/Ulugh_Beg.jpeg
[2] Mirzo Ulubek (Ulugh Beg), Statue
in Riga, Latvia. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ulugbek.statue.riga.jpg
[1424 AD]
name: Muhammad Taragay) (1394-1449), a
Mongol astronomer, builds an astronomic
observatory in Samarkand.
[1] Ulugh Beg PD
source: http://www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/
~history/BigPictures/Ulugh_Beg.jpeg
[2] Mirzo Ulubek (Ulugh Beg), Statue
in Riga, Latvia. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ulugbek.statue.riga.jpg
[1425 AD]
Leuven, the first university in Belgium
is founded.
[1] Castle Arenberg, part of the
Katholieke Universiteit Leuven,
Belgium. 2004 GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Castle_Arenberg%2C_Katholieke_Univers
iteit_Leuven_adj.jpg
[1435 AD]
(c1398-c1468), German inventor,
introduces the movable type printing
press in Europe.
France)
[1] Johannes Gutenberg, engraving,
1584. Science Source/Photo
Researchers, Inc. PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-15524?articleTypeId=1
[2] Johannes Gensfleisch zur Laden
zum Gutenberg made after his
death http://www.sru.edu/depts/cisba/co
mpsci/dailey/217students/sgm8660/Final/
PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Gutenberg.jpg
[1435 AD]
(CE 1404-1472), Italian artist and
achitect, writes "On Painting" the
first book to describe the laws of
perspective (how to draw a picture of a
three-dimensional scene on a
two-dimensional plane). Poncelet will
develop this 400 years later, and
Leonardo da Vinci will make use of
perspective in painting. This book will
result in more real looking paintings.
This book is the first modern treatise
on painting.
In 1452 Alberti writes "De re
aedificatoria" (Ten Books on
Architecture), a monumental theoretical
result of his long study of Vitruvius.
This work, not a restored text of
Vitruvius but a wholly new work, gives
hima a reputation as the "Florentine
Vitruvius" and becomes a bible of
Renaissance architecture, because it
incorporates and makes advances on the
engineering knowledge of antiquity.
This treatise
on architecture will remain the best
for centuries.
Alberti writes small treatise on
geography, the first work of its kind
since antiquity. It sets forth the
rules for surveying and mapping a land
area, in this case the city of Rome,
and it is probably as influential as
his earlier treatise on painting.
Although it is difficult to trace the
historical connections, the methods of
surveying and mapping and the
instruments described by Alberti are
precisely those that were responsible
for the new scientific accuracy of the
depictions of towns and land areas that
date from the late 1400s and early
1500s.
[1] Late statue of Leon Battista
Alberti. Courtyard of the Uffizi
Gallery, Florence GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Leon_Battista_Alberti.jpg
[2] Leon Battista Alberti,
self-portrait plaque, bronze, c. 1435;
in the National Gallery of Art,
Washington, D.C. Courtesy of the
National Gallery of Art, Washington,
D.C., Samuel H. Kress
Collection COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-8247?articleTypeId=1
[1437 AD]
name: Muhammad Taragay) (1394-1449), a
Mongol astronomer, Beg publishes an
astronomical table and star catalogue
"Zij-i-Sultani", that contains a star
map of 994 stars and is the product of
the work of a group of astronomers
working under the funding of Ulugh Beg.
[1] Ulugh Beg PD
source: http://www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/
~history/BigPictures/Ulugh_Beg.jpeg
[2] Mirzo Ulubek (Ulugh Beg), Statue
in Riga, Latvia. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ulugbek.statue.riga.jpg
[02/12/1440 AD]
(CE 1401-1464) describe space as
infinite in size, and that stars are
other suns with inhabited planets.
[1] Picture of Nicholas of
Cusa English: Nicholas of Cusa Source
from a painting by Meister des
Marienlebens, located in the hospital
at Kues (Germany) Date ca. 1480 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Nicholas_of_Cusa.jpg
[2] Nicholas of Cusa (Nicholas
Krebs) Library of Congress PD
source: http://www.answers.com/topic/nic
holas-of-cusa?cat=technology
[1443 AD]
1403-1472), a Greek scholar,
accumulates many manuscripts of great
Greek books.
[1] Basilius Bessarion Source
http://www.telemachos.hu-berlin.de/bi
lder/gudeman/gudeman.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Basilius_Bessarion.JPG
[1450 AD]
invented.
[1450 AD]
southern Germany or northern Italy
began to make small clocks driven by a
spring. These are the first portable
timepieces.
Italy
[1452 AD]
1404-1472), writes "De re
aedificatoria" (Ten Books on
Architecture), a monumental theoretical
result of his long study of Vitruvius.
This treatise on architecture will
remain the best for centuries.
[1] Late statue of Leon Battista
Alberti. Courtyard of the Uffizi
Gallery, Florence GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Leon_Battista_Alberti.jpg
[2] Leon Battista Alberti,
self-portrait plaque, bronze, c. 1435;
in the National Gallery of Art,
Washington, D.C. Courtesy of the
National Gallery of Art, Washington,
D.C., Samuel H. Kress
Collection COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-8247?articleTypeId=1
[05/29/1453 AD]
[1] The Siege of Constantinople.
Painted in
1499. http://www.greece.org/Romiosini/f
all.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Siege_of_Constantinople.jpg
[2] Siege of Constantinople, by Jean
Chartier Source Bibliothèque
nationale de France Manuscript
Français 2691 folio CCXLVI v
[1] http://visualiseur.bnf.fr/Visualise
ur?Destination=Mandragore&O=07841452&E=1
&I=42603&M=imageseule Date 3rd
quarter of the 15th century Author
jean Chartier, Chronique
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Siege_constantinople_bnf_fr2691.jpg
[1454 AD]
c1398-c1468) produces 300 copies of the
Bible, in double columns with forty-two
lines in Latin on each page. This is
the first printed book in Europe.
Gutenberg goes into debt to produce the
books and is sued for the money. Infact
the winners of the lawsuit take his
presses and supplies and are the first
to actually sell the books.
[1] Johannes Gutenberg, engraving,
1584. Science Source/Photo
Researchers, Inc. PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-15524?articleTypeId=1
[2] Johannes Gensfleisch zur Laden zum
Gutenberg made after his
death http://www.sru.edu/depts/cisba/co
mpsci/dailey/217students/sgm8660/Final/
PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Gutenberg.jpg
[1460 AD]
Universität Basel), the oldest
university in Switzerland is founded.
[1] The Astronomical Institute of the
University of Basel was founded in
1894. Since 1995 it is part of the
Department of Physics and Astronomy,
together with the Institute of Physics
of the University of Basel COPYRIGHTED
EDU
source: http://www.astro.unibas.ch/infos
/AIUB_semifront_small.jpg
[2] Opening Pageant of the University
of Basel, Basel Minster, 4 April
1460. Title miniature of the Rector''s
register, Basel University
Library. PD
source: http://www.unibas.ch/index.cfm?u
uid=911241CC0F0BC853812D75DEECDB0824&&IR
ACER_AUTOLINK&&&o_lang_id=2
[1462 AD]
(Johnann Muller) (1436-1476), German
astronomer, publishes a revised and
corrected version of "Almagest" using
Greek copies brought from Cardinal
Bessarion from Constantinople. In this
work Regiomontanus completes
Peuerbach's half-finished "Epitome" on
Ptolemy's "Almagest" around 1462 (first
printed in 1496 as Epytoma in
Almagestum Ptolomei).
prepares new table of planetary motions
bringing those under Alfonso X up to
date. These tables are used by many
people including Columbus.
Introduces Indian (Arabic) numerals to
Germany, reproducing his tables with a
printing press and is one of the first
printers.
1472 observes a comet (later called
Halley's comet), this is the first time
comets are the objects of scientific
study instead of merely stirring up
superstitious terror.
[1] Regiomontanus (1436-1476) German
mathematician, astronomer and
astrologer. Quelle: *
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollections
/hst/scientific-identity/explore.htm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Johannes_Regiomontanus.jpg
[1472 AD]
1423-1461), Austrian mathematician and
astronomer, uses arabic numerals to
prepare the most accurate table of
sines.
[1] Georg von Peuerbach: Theoricarum
novarum planetarum testus, Paris
1515 PD
source: http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bil
d:Peuerbach-Theoricarum-1515.png
[2] Georg von Peuerbach PD
source: http://www.astronomie.at/burgenl
and/archiv/peuerbach/start.htm
[1472 AD]
1452-1519), Italian painter, sculpture
and inventor, draws designs for tanks,
airplanes, uses elaborate gears,
chains, ratchets an other devices in
his designs, designs a parachute,
designs an elevator for the Milan
cathedral, among other engineering
feats.
[1] # Self-portrait of Leonardo da
Vinci, circa 1512-1515 # Location:
Royal Library, Turin # Technique: Red
chalk # Dimensions: 13 x 8.5'' (33 x
21.6 cm) Source:
http://www.vivoscuola.it/us/ic-villalaga
rina/Ipertesti/caritro/images/Leonardo_a
utorutratto.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Leonardo_self.jpg
[2] Verrocchio, Florence, 15thC,
''David'' bronze statue. The model is
thought to have been Leonardo da
Vinci Source WGA Date
1467 Author Verrocchio PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Verrocchio_David.jpg
[1474 AD]
(1397-1482), an Italian physician and
mapmaker, creates a map with Europe on
the right hand side and Asia on the
left hand side, separated by the
Atlantic Ocean which Toscanelli
estimates is 3000 miles (actual units?)
wide which is too small). Toscanelli
sends a letter and the map to the court
of Lisbon, detailing a plan for sailing
westwards to reach the Spice Islands. A
copy of this letter and map is sent to
Christopher Columbus, which excites and
inspires Columbus. Columbus carries the
map with him during his first voyage to
the new world. Toscanelli's
miscalculation of the size of the earth
will result in Columbus never realizing
he has found a new continent.
[1] Paolo dal Pozzo Toscanelli (1397-10
May,1482) From: H.F. Helmolt (ed.):
History of the World. New York,
1901. Copied from University of Texas
Portrait
Gallery http://www.lib.utexas.edu/photo
draw/portraits/ PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Hw-columbus.jpg
[2] La carte de Toscanelli et,
ci-dessous, son tracé superposé avec
celui d'une carte actuelle. PD
source: http://www.stephan-selle.de/Lese
fruchte/Kolumbus/kolumbus.html
[1477 AD]
Uppsala universitet), a public
university in Uppsala, Sweden is
founded. Uppsala university is the
oldest university in Scandinavia,
outdating the University of Copenhagen
by two years.
[1] 18th century engraving of
Riddartorget in Uppsala, with the later
demolished Academia Carolina (the old
chapter house) to the left (by the
Cathedral which is just outside the
picture). To the right is the
Oxenstierna Palace, the former
residence of w:Bengt Gabrielsson
Oxenstierna. The latter was then used
for the ''Royal Academy [=University]
Hospital'' (''Kgl Academi Sjukhus''),
and is now the main building for the
Faculty of Law. In the middle one can
see a part of the Skytteanum, where the
Professor Skytteanus has his residence
and office and parts of the Department
of Government are still
located. Engraving by F. Akrelius in:
J. B. Busser, Beskrifning om Upsala
(1769). PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Academia_Carolina_Uppsala.jpg
[2] Engraving by Fredrik Akrel
(Akrelius). Source: From: Johan
Benedict Busser, Utkast till
beskrifning om Upsala. Upsala, tryckt
hos Joh. Edman, kongl. acad. boktr.
1-2. 1769-73. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Exercise_yard_-_from_Busser%2C_Om_Ups
ala_Stad_etc.jpg
[1479 AD]
(Danish: Københavns Universitet), the
oldest and largest university in
Denmark is formed.
[1] The University of Copenhagen old
building in the inner city. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:KU_inner_city_1.jpg
[2] The Rundetårn (round tower) was
used in the 17th century as an
observatory by Ole Rømer CC
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Copenhagen_Rundet%C3%A5rn_street_left
.jpg
[1480 AD]
1452-1519), draws a machine for
storming walls.
[1] Machine for Storming Walls a 1480
drawing by Leonardo da Vinci for a ware
machine PD
source: http://inventors.about.com/od/ds
tartinventors/ig/Inventions-of-Leonardo-
DaVinci/Machine-for-Storming-Walls.htm
[05/01/1484 AD]
1451-1506), Italian explorer, seeks
support for crossing the Atlantic to
Asia from King John II of Portugal but
is denied.
[1] Portrait of Christopher Columbus
from the painting Virgen de los
Navegantes (in the Sala de los
Almirantes, Royal Alcazar, Seville). A
painting by Alejo Fernández between
1505 and 1536. It is the only state
sponsored portrait of the First Admiral
of the Indias. Photo by a Columbus
historian, Manuel Rosa. More info
http://www.UnmaskingColumbus.com PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Christopher_Columbus_Face.jpg
[2] Christopher Columbus, conjectural
image by Sebastiano del Piombo in the
Gallery of Illustrious Men (Corridoio
Vasariano), Uffizi, Florence but
yet: Christophorus Columbus/Cristobal
Colon, pictue by Sebastiano del Piombo
from the XVI (15th century) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:CristobalColon.jpg
[1485 AD]
1452-1519), draws designs for a boat, a
giant crossbow, an eight-barrelled
machine gun, and an automatic igniting
device for firearms.
[1] Designs for a Boat is part of a
series of (1485 - 1487) drawings by
Leonardo da Vinci. PD
source: http://inventors.about.com/od/ds
tartinventors/ig/Inventions-of-Leonardo-
DaVinci/Designs-for-a-Boat-.htm
[2] Drawing of giant crossbow by
Leonardo da Vinci circa 1485 to
1487. PD
source: http://inventors.about.com/od/ds
tartinventors/ig/Inventions-of-Leonardo-
DaVinci/Giant-Crossbow.htm
[1487 AD]
1452-1519), draws the first known
design for a tank (armored car)
(metal?).
[1] Armoured Car a pen drawing dated
1487 by Leonardo Da Vinci PD
source: http://inventors.about.com/od/ds
tartinventors/ig/Inventions-of-Leonardo-
DaVinci/Armoured-Car.htm
[1487 AD]
1452-1519), draws a design of a
helicopter or aerial screw.
[1] The Ornithopter Flying Machine
Designed and Drawn by Leonardo da
Vinci The ornithopter flying machine
was never actually created. It was a
design that Leonardo DaVinci made to
show how man could fly. Some experts
say that the modern day helicopter was
inspired by this design. [t this is
not an ornithopter because it has no
flapping wings] PD
source: http://inventors.about.com/od/ds
tartinventors/ig/Inventions-of-Leonardo-
DaVinci/Ornithopter-Flying-Machine.htm
[1488 AD]
1452-1519), draws a design for an
"ornithopher" a flying machine with
flapping wings.
[1] Design for a Flying Machine is a
1488 drawing by Leonardo da Vinci. PD
source: http://inventors.about.com/od/ds
tartinventors/ig/Inventions-of-Leonardo-
DaVinci/Design-for-a-Flying-Machine-2.ht
m
[2] Design for a Flying Machine (c.
1488) is a drawing by Leonardo da
Vinci. Source:
http://www.visi.com/~reuteler/leonardo.h
tml PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Design_for_a_Flying_Machine.jpg
[01/??/1492 AD]
fund Columbus with 3 small ships and
120 men (most are from prison).
[1] Portrait of Christopher Columbus
from the painting Virgen de los
Navegantes (in the Sala de los
Almirantes, Royal Alcazar, Seville). A
painting by Alejo Fernández between
1505 and 1536. It is the only state
sponsored portrait of the First Admiral
of the Indias. Photo by a Columbus
historian, Manuel Rosa. More info
http://www.UnmaskingColumbus.com PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Christopher_Columbus_Face.jpg
[2] Christopher Columbus, conjectural
image by Sebastiano del Piombo in the
Gallery of Illustrious Men (Corridoio
Vasariano), Uffizi, Florence but
yet: Christophorus Columbus/Cristobal
Colon, pictue by Sebastiano del Piombo
from the XVI (15th century) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:CristobalColon.jpg
[08/03/1492 AD]
of Asia.
[1] Portrait of Christopher Columbus
from the painting Virgen de los
Navegantes (in the Sala de los
Almirantes, Royal Alcazar, Seville). A
painting by Alejo Fernández between
1505 and 1536. It is the only state
sponsored portrait of the First Admiral
of the Indias. Photo by a Columbus
historian, Manuel Rosa. More info
http://www.UnmaskingColumbus.com PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Christopher_Columbus_Face.jpg
[2] Christopher Columbus, conjectural
image by Sebastiano del Piombo in the
Gallery of Illustrious Men (Corridoio
Vasariano), Uffizi, Florence but
yet: Christophorus Columbus/Cristobal
Colon, pictue by Sebastiano del Piombo
from the XVI (15th century) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:CristobalColon.jpg
[09/13/1492 AD]
shifting of direction of the compass
needle as a person moves over large
areas of the earth. He keeps this a
secret from his crew because they might
fear that they were moving into areas
were the laws of nature are no longer
observed.
[1] Portrait of Christopher Columbus
from the painting Virgen de los
Navegantes (in the Sala de los
Almirantes, Royal Alcazar, Seville). A
painting by Alejo Fernández between
1505 and 1536. It is the only state
sponsored portrait of the First Admiral
of the Indias. Photo by a Columbus
historian, Manuel Rosa. More info
http://www.UnmaskingColumbus.com PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Christopher_Columbus_Face.jpg
[2] Christopher Columbus, conjectural
image by Sebastiano del Piombo in the
Gallery of Illustrious Men (Corridoio
Vasariano), Uffizi, Florence but
yet: Christophorus Columbus/Cristobal
Colon, pictue by Sebastiano del Piombo
from the XVI (15th century) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:CristobalColon.jpg
[10/12/1492 AD]
Americas by crossing the Atlantic
Ocean.
[1] Portrait of Christopher Columbus
from the painting Virgen de los
Navegantes (in the Sala de los
Almirantes, Royal Alcazar, Seville). A
painting by Alejo Fernández between
1505 and 1536. It is the only state
sponsored portrait of the First Admiral
of the Indias. Photo by a Columbus
historian, Manuel Rosa. More info
http://www.UnmaskingColumbus.com PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Christopher_Columbus_Face.jpg
[2] Christopher Columbus, conjectural
image by Sebastiano del Piombo in the
Gallery of Illustrious Men (Corridoio
Vasariano), Uffizi, Florence but
yet: Christophorus Columbus/Cristobal
Colon, pictue by Sebastiano del Piombo
from the XVI (15th century) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:CristobalColon.jpg
[12/05/1492 AD]
1451-1506) reaches Haiti. Columbus
renames it La Isla Española, or
Hispaniola. He seems to have thought
that Hispaniola might be Cipango or, if
not Cipango, then perhaps one of the
legendarily rich isles from which King
Solomon's triennial fleet brought back
gold, gems, and spices to Jerusalem (1
Kings 10:11, 22); alternatively, he
reasons that the island could be
related to the biblical kingdom of
Sheba (Saba'). There Columbus finds at
least enough gold and other products to
save him from ridicule on his return to
Spain. With the help of a Taino
cacique, or Indian chief, named
Guacanagarí, Columbus has a stockade
built on the northern coast of the
island, names it "La Navidad", and
posts 39 men to guard it until his
return. The accidental running aground
of the Santa María provids additional
planks and provisions for the garrison.
This is the first European settlement
in America. In the future many millions
of European people will move to and
live in America.
[1] Portrait of Christopher Columbus
from the painting Virgen de los
Navegantes (in the Sala de los
Almirantes, Royal Alcazar, Seville). A
painting by Alejo Fernández between
1505 and 1536. It is the only state
sponsored portrait of the First Admiral
of the Indias. Photo by a Columbus
historian, Manuel Rosa. More info
http://www.UnmaskingColumbus.com PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Christopher_Columbus_Face.jpg
[2] Christopher Columbus, conjectural
image by Sebastiano del Piombo in the
Gallery of Illustrious Men (Corridoio
Vasariano), Uffizi, Florence but
yet: Christophorus Columbus/Cristobal
Colon, pictue by Sebastiano del Piombo
from the XVI (15th century) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:CristobalColon.jpg
[01/16/1493 AD]
1451-1506) leaves America (Hispaniola)
with his remaining two ships, the Nina
and Pinta, for Spain. Columbus takes
some of the native people back with
him. As Columbus had predicted the
westerly winds do indeed direct them
homeward.
[1] Portrait of Christopher Columbus
from the painting Virgen de los
Navegantes (in the Sala de los
Almirantes, Royal Alcazar, Seville). A
painting by Alejo Fernández between
1505 and 1536. It is the only state
sponsored portrait of the First Admiral
of the Indias. Photo by a Columbus
historian, Manuel Rosa. More info
http://www.UnmaskingColumbus.com PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Christopher_Columbus_Face.jpg
[2] Christopher Columbus, conjectural
image by Sebastiano del Piombo in the
Gallery of Illustrious Men (Corridoio
Vasariano), Uffizi, Florence but
yet: Christophorus Columbus/Cristobal
Colon, pictue by Sebastiano del Piombo
from the XVI (15th century) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:CristobalColon.jpg
[03/15/1493 AD]
1451-1506) arrives at his home port of
Palos March 15. Pinzón arrives at
Palos in the Pinta a few hours later
but dies within days. Columbus presents
Isabella with "Indian" human captives,
parrots and other unknown animals,
spices, and some gold.
[1] Portrait of Christopher Columbus
from the painting Virgen de los
Navegantes (in the Sala de los
Almirantes, Royal Alcazar, Seville). A
painting by Alejo Fernández between
1505 and 1536. It is the only state
sponsored portrait of the First Admiral
of the Indias. Photo by a Columbus
historian, Manuel Rosa. More info
http://www.UnmaskingColumbus.com PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Christopher_Columbus_Face.jpg
[2] Christopher Columbus, conjectural
image by Sebastiano del Piombo in the
Gallery of Illustrious Men (Corridoio
Vasariano), Uffizi, Florence but
yet: Christophorus Columbus/Cristobal
Colon, pictue by Sebastiano del Piombo
from the XVI (15th century) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:CristobalColon.jpg
[06/07/1494 AD]
Portugal and Spain. According to this
treaty Spain is allowed to take all
land west of a line drawn from pole to
pole 370 leagues (about 1,185
miles/1,910 km) west of the Cape Verde
Islands, and Portugal is allowed to
claim all land to the east of the line.
province, Spain)
[1] Cantino planisphere of 1502
depicting the meridian designated by
the treaty. Cantino planisphere. Image
found at
http://www.ac-creteil.fr/portugais/PPCAN
TINO2.jpg. In public domain due to the
image's age. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Cantino_Planisphere.jpg
[1494 AD]
(CE c1445-1517), Italian mathematician,
publishes his major work on arithmetic
and geometry "Summa de arithmetica,
geometrica, proportioni et
proportionalita", the first printed
description of method of double-entry
bookkeeping.
[1] Ritratto di Frà Luca Pacioli
(1495). Luca Pacioli (1445 - 1517) is
the central figure in this painting
exhibited in the Museo e Gallerie di
Capodimonte in Napoli (Italy). The
painter is unknown, although some
people are convinced the painter is
Jacopo de' Barbari (1440-1515). Table
is filled with geomerical tools: slate,
chalk, compas, a dodecahedron model and
a rhombicuboctahedron half-filed with
water is hanging in the air. Pacioli is
demonstrating a theorem by Euclid. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Pacioli.jpg
[2] The first ever printed version of
the Rhombicuboctahedron was by Leonardo
da Vinci, as appeared in the Divina
Proportione by Luca Pacioli 1509,
Venise PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Leonardo_polyhedra.png
[1504 AD]
(Latin: Americus Vespucius) (VeSPYUsuS)
(CE 1454-1512), Italian navigator,
recognizes that the new lands extend
too far to the South to be Asia, and
that the new lands are not Asia but
represent a new continent unknown to
ancient people, and that between that
continent and Asia there must be a
second ocean. The new continent will be
named "America" after Amerigo
Vespucius.
[1] Amerigo Vespucci From Amerigo
Vespucci by Frederick A. Ober - Project
Gutenberg eText
19997 http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/19
997 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Amerigo_Vespucci_-_Project_Gutenberg_
etext_19997.jpg
[2] Statue at the Uffizi,
Florence. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Amerigo_Vespucci01.jpg
[1507 AD]
(VoLTZAmYULR) (c1470-c1518), German
cartographer, prints 1000 copies of the
first map to show America which he
names after Amerigo Vespucius for
recognizing that America is infact a
new landmass.
[1] Le cartographe allemand Martin
Waldseemüller (portrait peint par
Gaston Save pour décorer l'ancien
théâtre de Saint-Dié-des-Vosges,
aujourd'hui disparu) Source Catalogue
de l'exposition ''America, L'Amérique
est née à Saint-Dié-des Vosges en
1507'' (1992) Date 19ème
siècle Author Gaston Save
(1844-1901) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:MartinWaldseem%C3%BCller.jpg
[2] Gerlinde Brandenburger-Eisele
holds the oldest map showing
''America'' in the Ritterhausmuseum
(Museum of the Knight) in Offenburg,
southern Germany. The map was drawn in
1507 by cartographer Martin
Waldseemueller. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.usatoday.com/news/nat
ion/2007-04-24-america-turns-500_N.htm?c
sp=34
[1511 AD]
1469-1536), Dutch humanist, publishes
"Moriae encomium" ("Praise of Folly"),
which contains satirical criticisms of
church and state.
Humanism is a broad category
of ethical philosophies that affirm the
dignity and worth of all humans, based
on their ability to determine right and
wrong by appeal to universal human
qualities, particularly logic (reason).
[1] The Dutch philosopher Desiderius
Erasmus. By Hans Holbein the
younger. Source:
http://www.wga.hu/art/h/holbein/hans_y/1
525/08erasmu.jpg Creator/Artist Name
Holbein d. J., Hans Date of
birth/death 1497/98
1543-11-29 Location of birth/death
Deutsch: Augsburg Deutsch:
London Work location Deutsch:
Basel, London PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Holbein-erasmus.jpg
[2] Deutsch: Porträt des Erasmus von
Rotterdam am Schreibpult Artist
Holbein d. J., Hans Year
1523 Technique Deutsch: Tempera
auf Holz Dimensions Deutsch: 43 ×
33 cm Current location Deutsch:
Musée du Louvre Deutsch:
Paris Source The Yorck Project:
10.000 Meisterwerke der Malerei.
DVD-ROM, 2002. ISBN 3936122202.
Distributed by DIRECTMEDIA Publishing
GmbH. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Hans_Holbein_d._J._047.jpg
[1512 AD]
Copernicus (KOPRniKuS) (Polish:Mikolaj
Kopernik) (1473-1543), Polish
astronomer, distributes
"Commentariolus" ("Little Commentary"),
a short handwritten paper describing
his ideas about the sun centered
theory.
[1] Nicolaus Copernicus (portrait from
Toruń - beginning of the 16th
century), from
http://www.frombork.art.pl/Ang10.htm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Nikolaus_Kopernikus.jpg
[2] Nicolaus Copernicus PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Copernicus.jpg
[09/25/1513 AD]
(1475-1519), Spanish explorer, is the
first European to see and describe the
Pacific Ocean. Balboa names the Pacific
Ocean the "South Sea".
[1] Vasco Núñez de Balboa PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Vascon%C3%BA%C3%B1ezdebalboa.jpeg
[2] Vasco Núñez de Balboa executing
Native Americans for same-sex
love. New York Public Library, Rare
Book Room, De Bry Collection, New
York http://www.androphile.org/preview/
Museum/New_World/Panama_Two-SpiritA.html
Théodore De
Bry (1528-1598) Balboa setting his
dogs upon Indian practitioners of male
love (1594) The Spanish invader Vasco
Núñez de Balboa (1475-1519) shown in
Central America with his troops,
presiding over the execution of
Indians, whom he ordered eaten alive by
the war dogs for having practiced male
love. New York Public Library, Rare
Book Room, De Bry Collection, New
York. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Balboamurder.jpg
[1515 AD]
(1477-1547), German geographer,
constructs the first globe (a
manuscript) with the new lands
discovered by Columbus, and with the
name "America" as Waldseemüller
suggested.
[1] Johannes Schöner, (1477-1547)
Astronomer. Original Picture was
obtained from this
(http://www.uni-mannheim.de/mateo/desbil
lons/aport/seite181.html) site, PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Johannes_Sch%C3%B6ner_Astronomer_01.j
pg
[2] Cranach, Lucas Portrait des
Magdeburger Theologen Dr. Johannes
Schoener Renaissance Diese
Bilder-Vorlage Portrait des Magdeburger
Theologen Dr. Johannes Schoener Von
Cranach, Lucas als hochwertiges,
handgemaltes Gem�lde. Wir malen
Ihr �lgem�lde nach Ihrer
Vorlage. PD
source: http://www.oel-bild.de/bilder/67
92M.jpg
[10/31/1517 AD]
Theses on the door of the Castle
Church, Wittenberg, Germany, on October
31, 1517, the eve of All Saints' Day,
the traditional date for the beginning
of the Protestant Reformation.
In 1521 Luther will be excommunicated
and what began as an internal reform
movement will become a major fracture
in western Christendom.
As a result of the Protestant
Reformation, although Protestant people
will persecute and murder atheists and
scientists just as Catholic people
will, the Protestant Reformation does
represent a challange to the
traditional religious Christian belief,
the massive group of followers of Jesus
of Nazareth.
Before this there are other reformers
within the medieval church such as St.
Francis of Assisi, Valdes (founder of
the Waldensians), Jan Hus, and John
Wycliffe.
[1] Luther in 1529 by Lucas
Cranach Painting by Lucas Cranach the
Elder. Uffizi gallery. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Luther46c.jpg
[10/21/1520 AD]
through the southern tip of South
America that connects the Atlantic and
Pacific Oceans. Magellan will name the
waters the "Mar Pacifico" (Pacific
Ocean) because of the calmness of the
Pacific Ocean after the storms of the
strait.
[1] An anonymous portrait of Ferdinand
Magellan, 16th or 17th century (The
Mariner's Museum Collection, Newport
News, VA) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ferdinand_Magellan.jpg
[2] Map of Ferdinand Magellans voyage
around the world GFDL
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Magellan%27s_voyage_EN.svg
[1520 AD]
(1477-1547), German geographer,
constructs a globe with the new lands
discovered by Columbus.
[1] Johannes Schöner, (1477-1547)
Astronomer. Original Picture was
obtained from this
(http://www.uni-mannheim.de/mateo/desbil
lons/aport/seite181.html) site, PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Johannes_Sch%C3%B6ner_Astronomer_01.j
pg
[2] Johannes Schöner globe, made in
1520. Shows the Americas, Antarctica
before (european) official discovery.
Based on other older maps and globes.
Original picture was obtained from this
site, then it was scaled down to a
lower resolution. Globe maker died more
than 200 hundred years ago. This image
is to be used in Johannes Schöner
globe article under fair use as : This
photo is only being used for
informational purposes. This photo
helps only to show the globe. As this
picture is also (commonly) used in
other sites, it helps to recognize the
globe quickly. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Johannes_Sch%C3%B6ner_globe_1520_m01.
jpg
[09/08/1522 AD]
[1] An anonymous portrait of Ferdinand
Magellan, 16th or 17th century (The
Mariner's Museum Collection, Newport
News, VA) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ferdinand_Magellan.jpg
[2] Juan Sebastián
Elcano Litografía de J. Donon en
Historia de la Marina Real Española.
Madrid,
1854 http://marenostrum.org/bibliotecad
elmar/historia/pacifico/ PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Elcano.jpg
[1523 AD]
(1477-1547) 1523 map of earth.
Germany(presumably)
[1] Johannes Schöner, (1477-1547)
Astronomer. Original Picture was
obtained from this
(http://www.uni-mannheim.de/mateo/desbil
lons/aport/seite181.html) site, PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Johannes_Sch%C3%B6ner_Astronomer_01.j
pg
[2] Facsimile globe gores of Johannes
Schöner's Globe of 1523 [t is not
actual map?] PD
source: http://www.henry-davis.com/MAPS/
Ren/Ren1/348.html
[1524 AD]
Hemisphere is built by the conquistador
Hernán Cortés to care for poor
Spanish soldiers and the native
inhabitants. The original name is
"Hospital de la Purísima Concepción
de Nuestra Señora" (Hospital of Our
Lady of the Purest Conception).
[1] This is the first and longest
serving hospital constructed on the
American continent, which has been
serving the needs of the sick and
ailing since 1524. Originally called
the Hospital de la Purísima
Concepción de Nuestra Señora
(Hospital of Our Lady of the Purest
Conception), it was built with the
economic support of conquistador Hernan
Cortes, so as to serve the needs of
poor Spanish soldiers and Native
Americans. New installations were added
in the mid-twentieth century, of a
different architectural appearance, but
using the same materials as the
original construction. It is worth
visiting for its sixteenth century
stone arches and the mural by Orozco
that depicts the encounter between the
Spaniards and Native
Americans. Information by
Wcities COPYRIGHTED
source: http://travel.yahoo.com/p-travel
guide-2739035-hospital_de_jesus_nazareno
_hershey-i
[1524 AD]
publishes "Cosmographia", which
contains some of the earliest maps of
America.
[1] Petrus Apianus. From Icones sive
imagines virorum literis illustrium,
Frankfurt 1719. Image source:
http://www.math.uni-hamburg.de/math/ig
n/xyz/ca00-v5.htm#tth_sEc3 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Peter_Apian.png
[2] A page from Petrus Apianus'
Astronomicum Caesareum (1540). Img src:
Library of
Congress. http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/w
orld/world-object.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Astronomicum_Caesareum.jpg
[1525 AD]
1471-1528), German artist, invents the
art of etching and publishes "Vier
Bücher von menschlicher Proportion"
("The Painter's Manual", more
literally, "the Instructions on
Measurement"), a book on geometrical
constructions for use by artists which
helps the popular trend of naturalism
(realism) in painting at this time.
[1] Autorretrato (1500) Albrecht Durer
- Self-Portrait at 28 * Image
copiée sur le site WebMuseum *
http://www.ibiblio.org/wm/ Self-Portrai
t (1500) by Albrecht Dürer, oil on
board, Alte PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Durer_self_portarit_28.jpg
[2] The earliest painted Self-Portrait
(1493) by Albrecht Dürer, oil,
originally on vellum Louvre, Paris La
bildo estas kopiita de wikipedia:lt. La
originala priskribo estas: Albrech
Dürer, Selbstportät mit Blume,
1493 Autoportretas su
gėlėmis, tapyta apiejumi ant
drobės, 57 x 45 cm, laikoma Luvre,
Paryiuje. altinis:
http://www.louvre.fr/img/photos/collec/p
eint/grande/rf2382.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Albrecht-self.jpg
[1530 AD]
name: Phillip von Hohenheim)
(1493-1541), Swiss physician and
alchemist, publishes a clinical
description of syphilis. Paracelsus
will establish the use of chemistry in
health.
[1] Presumed portrait of Paracelsus,
attributed to the school of Quentin
Matsys source :
http://euromin.w3sites.net/Nouveau_site/
mineralogiste/biographies/pic/paracelse.
htm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Paracelsus.jpg
[2] Monument for Paracelsus in
Beratzhausen, Bavaria. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:300704_beratzhausen-oberpfalz-paracel
sus-denkmal_1-480x640.jpg
[1533 AD]
(1477-1547) 1533 map of earth.
Germany(presumably)
[1] Johannes Schöner, (1477-1547)
Astronomer. Original Picture was
obtained from this
(http://www.uni-mannheim.de/mateo/desbil
lons/aport/seite181.html) site, PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Johannes_Sch%C3%B6ner_Astronomer_01.j
pg
[2] Johannes Schöner Weimer Globe
(1533). Made in 1533. Who died more
than 200 years ago. This modified
picture is used here for informational
purposes only, thus constitute a fair
use also. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Johannes_Sch%C3%B6ner_globe_1533_f_m0
2.png
[1534 AD]
series of acts which transfers
authority over all churches in England
to the King, removing Papal authority
and ownership of church property from
Rome and creating the Church of
England.
[1] Portrait of Henry VIII by Hans
Holbein the Younger. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Henry-VIII-kingofengland_1491-1547.jp
g
[2] An official portrait of Catherine
of Aragon whilst Queen consort, painted
from life around 1525 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Catherine_aragon.jpg
[1536 AD]
name: Phillip von Hohenheim)
(1493-1541), publishes "Der grossen
Wundartzney" ("Great Surgery Book").
[1] Presumed portrait of Paracelsus,
attributed to the school of Quentin
Matsys source :
http://euromin.w3sites.net/Nouveau_site/
mineralogiste/biographies/pic/paracelse.
htm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Paracelsus.jpg
[2] Monument for Paracelsus in
Beratzhausen, Bavaria. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:300704_beratzhausen-oberpfalz-paracel
sus-denkmal_1-480x640.jpg
[1537 AD]
(ToRToLYo) (CE 1499-1557) publishes
"Nova Scientia" ("A New Science"), the
first book on the theory of projectiles
(Leonardo da Vinci had written one
earlier, but Da Vinci's writings were
not published).
[1] Niccolò Fontana Tartaglia PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Niccol%C3%B2_Tartaglia.jpg
[2] (Tartaglia's formula) for the
volume of a tetrahedron (incl. any
irregular tetrahedra) presumed GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nic
col%C3%B2_Fontana_Tartaglia
[10/28/1538 AD]
Santo Domingo (Spanish: Universidad
Autónoma de Santo Domingo (UASD)), a
public university in the Dominican
Republic, the oldest university in the
western hemisphere, is established.
The Autonomous University of Santa
Domingo is founded during the reign of
Charles I of Spain.
[1] La Universidad de Santo Domingo fue
creada mediante la Bula In Apostolatus
Culmine, expedida el 28 de octubre de
1538, por el Papa Paulo III, la cual
elevó a esa categoría el Estudio
General que los dominicos regenteaban
desde el 1518, en Santo Domingo, sede
virreinal de la colonización y el más
viejo establecimiento colonial del
Nuevo Mundo. COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://www.uasd.edu.do/principal
es/general.html
[1540 AD]
German astronomer, publishes
"Astronomicum Caesareum", a book
describing his observations of comets,
describing the appearance of 5
different comets (including what will
become named Halley's comet). Apian
mentions that comets always have their
tails pointing away from the sun.
[1] Petrus Apianus. From Icones sive
imagines virorum literis illustrium,
Frankfurt 1719. Image source:
http://www.math.uni-hamburg.de/math/ig
n/xyz/ca00-v5.htm#tth_sEc3 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Peter_Apian.png
[2] A page from Petrus Apianus'
Astronomicum Caesareum (1540). Img src:
Library of
Congress. http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/w
orld/world-object.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Astronomicum_Caesareum.jpg
[1541 AD]
1516-1565), Swiss naturalist, completes
"Historia plantarum", a dictionary of
plants.
[1] Conrad Gessner (1516-1565), Swiss
naturalist. Source Galerie des
naturalistes de J. Pizzetta, Ed.
Hennuyer, 1893 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Gessner_Conrad_1516-1565.jpg
[2] Conrad Gesner. Historiae
Animalium. (Zurich, 1551ff).
http://www.nlm.nih.gov/exhibition/histor
icalanatomies/Images/1200_pixels/porcupi
ne_33.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Porcupine_33.jpg
[1542 AD]
(1497-1558), French physician,
publishes "Medicina", in which Fernel
is the first to use the words
"physiology" and "pathology".
Fernel is the first to
make human dissection an important part
of his clinical duties.
"Medicina" corrects
some of Galen's errors.
Fernel is the
first to describe an appendicitis.
Ferne
l describes the central canal of the
spinal cord.
[1] Scientist: Fernel, Jean François
(1497 - 1558) Discipline(s):
Medicine Print Artist: Nicolas de
Larmessin Medium: Woodcut Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 16.9 x 13.3 cm /
Sheet: 19 x 14.2 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/by_d
iscipline_display_results.cfm?Research_D
iscipline_1=Medicine
[1542 AD]
1501-1566), German botanist, writes
"Historia Stirpium", "History of
Plants", in which numerous plant
species are described in detail.
"Historia Stirpium" is a landmark in
the development of natural history
because of its organized presentation,
the accuracy of its drawings and
descriptions of plants, and its
glossary. Prepares the first important
glossary of botanical terms. This will
define botany, the study of plants, as
a specific branch of science.
[1] Leonhart Fuchs, German botanist and
author, 16th century Portrait,
unbekannter Künstler, o.D. source:
http://www.tu-darmstadt.de/fb/bio/bot/fu
chsien/ PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Leonhart.fuchs.farbig.jpg
[2] Description Leonard Fuchs Source
L C Miall. The History of Biology.
Watts and Co. Date 1911 Author L C
Miall PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:LeonardFuchsMiall.png
[1543 AD]
III stating that the earliest
suggestion he had seen that the earth
is in motion, was a statement that he
quoted from Cicero's "Academica".
[1543 AD]
East Prussia now:)Frombork, Poland;
(printed in)Nuremberg, Germany
[1] Nicolaus Copernicus (portrait from
Toruń - beginning of the 16th
century), from
http://www.frombork.art.pl/Ang10.htm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Nikolaus_Kopernikus.jpg
[2] Nicolaus Copernicus PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Copernicus.jpg
[1543 AD]
1514-1564), Flemish anatomist,
publishes "De Corporis Humani Fabrica"
("On the Structure of the Human Body"),
the first accurate book on human
anatomy, and the first with
illustrations.
[1] Portrait of Vesalius from his De
humani corporis fabrica (1543). PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Vesalius_Fabrica_portrait.jpg
[2] Image from Andreas Vesalius's De
humani corporis fabrica (1543), page
190. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Vesalius_Fabrica_p190.jpg
[1545 AD]
(KoRDoNO) (CE 1501-1576), Italian
mathematician, publishes "Ars Magna"
(Great Work), the first book to publish
a solution for equations of the third
degree (or cubic equations). "Ars
Magna" also contains the solution of
the quartic equation found by Cardano's
former servant, Lodovico Ferrari.
Cardano is the first to recognize the
value of negative and to understand
imaginary numbers.
Cardano is the first to write a
clinical description of Typhus fever.
Cardano is the first to understand the
water cycle (how water evaporates from
the seas into vapor (or gas) and the
vapor turns to rain and falls back to
the ground and into the oceans from
rivers.
Cardano writes 200 works.
[1] Girolamo Cardano, coloured woodcut
on the cover of his Practica
arithmetica (1539). The Granger
Collection, New York PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-15447/Girolamo-Cardano-coloured-woodcut
-on-the-cover-of-his-Practica?articleTyp
eId=1
[2] wikipedia contributor typed: I
found this picture at the library the
other day and haven't ever seen it
online before and thought it would make
a great addition to the Cardano page.
The author was marked as unknown. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:CardanoPortrait.jpg
[1545 AD]
1510-1590), a French surgeon considered
by many to be the founder of modern
surgery, writes "La Méthod de traicter
les playes faites par les arquebuses et
aultres bastons à feu", ("The Method
of Treating Wounds Made by Harquebuses
and Other Guns"), which is ridiculed
because it is written in French instead
of Latin.
Wisely decides to not use
boiling oil to treat gunshots
Pare ties off
arteries to stop bleeding.
Summarizes the books
of Vesalius into French (so other
barber-surgeons can learn anatomy).
Pare builds
artificial limbs.
Pare improves obstetrical
(care of a woman during pregnancy)
methods.
[1] Ambroise Paré (ca. 1510-1590),
famous French surgeon Posthumous
(fantasy) portrait by William Holl
(1807-1871) Source:
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollections
/hst/scientific-identity/CF/by_name_disp
lay_results.cfm?scientist=Par%C3%A9,%20A
mbroise PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ambroise_Par%C3%A9.jpg
[2] Paré, detail of an engraving,
1582 PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-13373/Pare-detail-of-an-engraving-1582?
articleTypeId=1
[1546 AD]
(George Bauer) (1494-1555), German
mineralogist, publishes "De natura
fossilium", considered the first
mineralogy textbook. This book presents
the first scientific classification of
minerals (based on their physical
properties) and describes many new
minerals, their occurrence and mutual
relationships.
published: Basel, Switzerland
[1] The ''Father of Mineralogy'',
Georgius Agricola. URL:
http://kanitz.onlinehome.de/agricolagymn
asium/agrigale.htm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Georgius_Agricola.jpg
[2] Georgius Agricola, portrait from
Icones veterum aliquot ac recentium
medicorum philosophorumque (1574) by
Joannes Sambucus, printed in
Antwerp. Courtesy of the Museum
National d'Histoire Naturelle,
Paris[2] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Georg_Agricola.jpg
[1546 AD]
publishes "De ortu et causis
subterraneorum" and "De natura eorum
quae effluunt ex terra". In these books
Agricola correctly attributes the
origin of ore deposits to deposition
from aqueous solution, describes the
erosive action of rivers and how
erosion shapes mountains. Agricola
readily discards the mistakes of
ancient authorities such as Aristotle
and Pliny.
published: Basel, Switzerland
[1] The ''Father of Mineralogy'',
Georgius Agricola. URL:
http://kanitz.onlinehome.de/agricolagymn
asium/agrigale.htm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Georgius_Agricola.jpg
[2] Georgius Agricola, portrait from
Icones veterum aliquot ac recentium
medicorum philosophorumque (1574) by
Joannes Sambucus, printed in
Antwerp. Courtesy of the Museum
National d'Histoire Naturelle,
Paris[2] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Georg_Agricola.jpg
[1550 AD]
(George Bauer) (1494-1555), German
mineralogist, writes "De Re Metallica"
which will be published a year after
his death in 1556. This book summarizes
all the knowledge gained by the Saxon
miners including drawings of mining
machines.
[1] The ''Father of Mineralogy'',
Georgius Agricola. URL:
http://kanitz.onlinehome.de/agricolagymn
asium/agrigale.htm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Georgius_Agricola.jpg
[2] Georgius Agricola, portrait from
Icones veterum aliquot ac recentium
medicorum philosophorumque (1574) by
Joannes Sambucus, printed in
Antwerp. Courtesy of the Museum
National d'Histoire Naturelle,
Paris[2] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Georg_Agricola.jpg
[1551 AD]
1511-1553), German mathematician,
publishes "Tabulae Prutenicae"
(Prussian Tables), the first set of
planetary tables based on the
sun-centered theory revived by
Copernicus.
[1] Reinhold, Prutenic Tables (1585),
title page. [t must be later
edition] PD
source: http://hsci.cas.ou.edu/images/jp
g-100dpi-5in/16thCentury/Reinhold/1585/R
einhold-1585-000tp.jpg
[2] Reinhold, Prutenic Tables (1585),
133v. PD
source: http://hsci.cas.ou.edu/exhibits/
exhibit.php?exbgrp=9&exbid=52&exbpg=25
[1552 AD]
(CE c1510-1574), Italian anatomist,
completes his book "Tabulae
anatomicae". Because Eustachio fears
ex-communication by the Catholic
Church, he does not publish his work
and it will not be published until
1714.
In "Anatomical Engravings" Eustachio is
the first to describe the adrenal
gland. The Eustachian tube is named
after Eustachio, although first
described by Alcmaeon 2000 years
before.
Eustachio does a detailed study
of teeth.
1552 Eustachio writes a book but
will not be published until 1714, with
anatomical illustrations
(worked on the sympathetic
nervous system, kidney and ear)
[1] Description Portrait of
Bartolomeus Eustachius, the
anatomist. Source Plate from A
History of dentistry from the most
ancient times until the end of the
eighteenth century, by Vincenzo
Guerini. Scanned by Google Book
Search. Date Plate published 1909;
possibly much earlier. Author Unknown
(not specified); possibly from one of
Eustachius' books. Permission Public
domain due to age. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Bartolomeus_Eustachius.jpg
[2] Portrait of Eustachius Eustachi,
Bartholomeo (d. 1574) - Tabulae
anatomicae. Tabulae anatomicae (Rome,
1783) Title page PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Eustachi01.jpg
[10/27/1553 AD]
(Spanish: Miguel Servet) (CE
1511-1553), Spanish physician, is
burned alive on a stake for heresy in
Champel, Geneva, Switzerland.
[1] Miguel Servet, (Villanueva de
Sigena 1511- Genevra 1553) Spanish
scientist and theologist of the
Renaissance. Artist : Christian
Fritzsch (author) born in about 1660,
Mittweida, Bautzen, Sachsen,
Germany. Source:
http://mcgovern.library.tmc.edu/data/www
/html/people/osler/MS/P000d.htm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Michael_Servetus.jpg
[2] Servetus, detail from an engraving
by Carl Sichem Courtesy of the
National Library of Medicine, Bethesda,
Md. PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-14212/Servetus-detail-from-an-engraving
-by-Carl-Sichem?articleTypeId=1
[1553 AD]
Dutch cartographer, explains that
longitude can be measured by using an
accurate timepiece, but no accurate
timepieces exist at this time.
Netherlands)
[1] English: Gemma Frisius, 1508-1555,
cartographer and mathematician Source
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollection
s/hst/scientific-identity/fullsize/SIL14
-G002-05a.jpg Date 17th
century Author Esme de Boulonois PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Gemma_frisius_dockumensis.jpg
[1553 AD]
(Spanish: Miguel Servet) (CE
1511-1553), Spanish physician,
publishes "Christianismi Restitutio"
which contains a description of the
function of pulmonary circulation.
[1] Miguel Servet, (Villanueva de
Sigena 1511- Genevra 1553) Spanish
scientist and theologist of the
Renaissance. Artist : Christian
Fritzsch (author) born in about 1660,
Mittweida, Bautzen, Sachsen,
Germany. Source:
http://mcgovern.library.tmc.edu/data/www
/html/people/osler/MS/P000d.htm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Michael_Servetus.jpg
[2] Servetus, detail from an engraving
by Carl Sichem Courtesy of the
National Library of Medicine, Bethesda,
Md. PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-14212/Servetus-detail-from-an-engraving
-by-Carl-Sichem?articleTypeId=1
[1555 AD]
1517-1564), French Naturalist,
publishes "L'histoire de la nature des
oyseaux" (1555; "Natural History of
Birds"), illustrating, classifying, and
describing about 200 species of birds.
[1] Subject : Pierre Belon
(1517-1564) French zoologist PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Belon_Pierre_1517-1564.jpg
[2] Birds and Humans skeleton
comparison from 1555 Source History
of Biology Date 1911 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:BelonBirdSkel.jpg
[1558 AD]
1516-1565), Swiss naturalist, completes
"Historia animalium" (1551-8), an
exhaustive effort to describe all known
animals.
[1] Conrad Gessner (1516-1565), Swiss
naturalist. Source Galerie des
naturalistes de J. Pizzetta, Ed.
Hennuyer, 1893 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Gessner_Conrad_1516-1565.jpg
[2] Conrad Gesner. Historiae
Animalium. (Zurich, 1551ff).
http://www.nlm.nih.gov/exhibition/histor
icalanatomies/Images/1200_pixels/porcupi
ne_33.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Porcupine_33.jpg
[1559 AD]
c1510-1559), Italian anatomist, writes
"De re anatomica" (1559; "On Things
Anatomical"), which clearly describes
the passage of blood between the heart
and lungs (pulmonary circulation).
[1] Matteo colombo, anatomista del
s.XVI. Óleo de autor anónimo. Matteo
Realdo Colombo. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Matteocolombo.jpg
[1560 AD]
(KoRDoNO) (CE 1501-1576), Italian
mathematician, writes "Liber de ludo
aleae" (The Book on Games of Chance),
which presents the first systematic
computations of probabilities, a
century before Blaise Pascal and Pierre
de Fermat.
[1] Girolamo Cardano, coloured woodcut
on the cover of his Practica
arithmetica (1539). The Granger
Collection, New York PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-15447/Girolamo-Cardano-coloured-woodcut
-on-the-cover-of-his-Practica?articleTyp
eId=1
[2] wikipedia contributor typed: I
found this picture at the library the
other day and haven't ever seen it
online before and thought it would make
a great addition to the Cardano page.
The author was marked as unknown. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:CardanoPortrait.jpg
[1560 AD]
(1535-1615), Italian physicist, forms
the first scientific society
(associations for scholars to
communicate), named "Accademia
Secretorus Naturae".
[1] Giambattista della Porta PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Dellaporta.jpg
[1561 AD]
1523-1562), Italian anatomist,
publishes "Observationes anatomicae",
in which he identifies the tubes that
connect the ovaries to the uterus (now
known as fallopian tubes) and several
major nerves of the head and face.
Fallopius describes the semicircular
canals of the inner ear (responsible
for maintaining body (balance)).
Fallopius names the "vagina",
"placenta", "clitoris", "palate", and
"cochlea" (the snail-shaped organ of
hearing in the inner ear).
The actual
function of the Fallopian tubes, where
sperm fertilizes the ovum, will not be
known for 200 years.
[1] 16th century portrait by unknown
artist Retrieved from
http://www.peoples.ru/science/professor/
gabriello/ PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Gabriele_Falloppio.jpg
[2] Gabriel Fallopius, coloured copper
engraving, 17th century. The Granger
Collection, New York PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-15449/Gabriel-Fallopius-coloured-copper
-engraving-17th-century?articleTypeId=1
[1567 AD]
(1497-1558) most comprehensive work,
"Universa medicina", is published
posthumously. In this book Frenel
describes peristalsis (the rhythmic
contraction of smooth muscles to propel
contents through the digestive tract.),
and the heart's systole (the
contraction of the chambers of the
heart, driving blood out of the
chambers.) and diastole (the period of
time when the heart relaxes after
contraction).
[1] Scientist: Fernel, Jean François
(1497 - 1558) Discipline(s):
Medicine Print Artist: Nicolas de
Larmessin Medium: Woodcut Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 16.9 x 13.3 cm /
Sheet: 19 x 14.2 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/by_d
iscipline_display_results.cfm?Research_D
iscipline_1=Medicine
[1569 AD]
1512-1594), publishes a world map with
the Mercator projection, which allows
lines of latitude and longitude to be
straight instead of curved.
(presumably)
[1] Portrait of en:Gerardus
Mercator Source Originally from
en.wikipedia; description page is/was
here. (Original text :
http://www.nmm.ac.uk/collections/prints/
viewRepro.cfm?reproID=PU2381) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Mercator.jpg
[2] Gerardus Mercator, Atlas sive
Cosmographicae Meditationes de Fabrica
Mundi et Fabricati Figura, Duisburg,
1595. from
http://octavo.com/collections/projects/m
crats/index.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Mercator_World_Map.jpg
[1569 AD]
1512-1594), publishes a chronology of
the world from the Creation to 1568.
(presumably)
[1] Portrait of en:Gerardus
Mercator Source Originally from
en.wikipedia; description page is/was
here. (Original text :
http://www.nmm.ac.uk/collections/prints/
viewRepro.cfm?reproID=PU2381) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Mercator.jpg
[2] Gerardus Mercator, Atlas sive
Cosmographicae Meditationes de Fabrica
Mundi et Fabricati Figura, Duisburg,
1595. from
http://octavo.com/collections/projects/m
crats/index.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Mercator_World_Map.jpg
[1569 AD]
the first to use the symbol "i" for the
square root of -1.
[1] Rafael Bombelli Source
unknown contemporary? PD?
COPYRIGHTED?
source: http://www-history.mcs.st-andrew
s.ac.uk/PictDisplay/Bombelli.html
[11/11/1572 AD]
1546-1601), Danish Astronomer observes
an exploded star (now called SN 1572)
in the constellation Cassiopeia, as
bright as Venus.
[1] The astronomer Tycho Brahe Source
http://measure.igpp.ucla.edu/solar-terr
estrial-luminaries/brahe.JPG PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Tycho_Brahe.JPG
[2] Tycho Brahe, engraving by Hendrik
Goltzius of a drawing by an unknown
artist, c. 1586. Courtesy of Det
Nationalhistoriske Museum på
Frederiksborg, Den. PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-9034/Tycho-Brahe-engraving-by-Hendrik-G
oltzius-of-a-drawing-by?articleTypeId=1
[1573 AD]
1546-1601), Danish Astronomer,
publishes "De nova stella" ("Concerning
the new star"), which records his
observation of an apparently new star
(now named SN 1572).
Ljungbyhed, Scania, Denmark (now
Sweden)
[1] The astronomer Tycho Brahe Source
http://measure.igpp.ucla.edu/solar-terr
estrial-luminaries/brahe.JPG PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Tycho_Brahe.JPG
[2] Tycho Brahe, engraving by Hendrik
Goltzius of a drawing by an unknown
artist, c. 1586. Courtesy of Det
Nationalhistoriske Museum på
Frederiksborg, Den. PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-9034/Tycho-Brahe-engraving-by-Hendrik-G
oltzius-of-a-drawing-by?articleTypeId=1
[1573 AD]
1546-1601), Danish Astronomer,
publishes "De mundi aetherei
recentioribus phenomenis" ("?"), in
which Tycho proves that the great comet
of 1577 had to be at least six times
farther than the moon, and this
provides another criticism of the claim
recorded by Aristotle that no change
can occur above the orbit of the moon.
[1] The astronomer Tycho Brahe Source
http://measure.igpp.ucla.edu/solar-terr
estrial-luminaries/brahe.JPG PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Tycho_Brahe.JPG
[2] Tycho Brahe, engraving by Hendrik
Goltzius of a drawing by an unknown
artist, c. 1586. Courtesy of Det
Nationalhistoriske Museum på
Frederiksborg, Den. PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-9034/Tycho-Brahe-engraving-by-Hendrik-G
oltzius-of-a-drawing-by?articleTypeId=1
[1580 AD]
flintlock replaces the matchlock.
[1] External view, showing the cock and
frizzen rotated back. Description
English: A snaphance lock, cocked,
showing the outside of the
mechanism Date 19 June
2010 Source Own work Author
Hatchetfish CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Snaphance_Lock%
2C_External_View%2C_Cocked.png/1280px-Sn
aphance_Lock%2C_External_View%2C_Cocked.
png
[2] Internal view, showing the flash
pan cover closed and the lateral sear
engaged. Description English: A
snaphance lock, cocked, showing the
internal mechanism Date 19 June
2010 Source Own work Author
Hatchetfish CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Snaphance_Lock%
2C_Internal_View%2C_Cocked.png/1280px-Sn
aphance_Lock%2C_Internal_View%2C_Cocked.
png
[1581 AD]
English navigator, publishes "The Newe
Attractive", which shows that a compass
needle allowed to swing up and down
points down below the horizon. Gilbert
also recognizes this.
[1582 AD]
calendar by the German astronomer,
Christoph Clavius (KloVEUS) (CE
1537-1612), is accepted at an
astronomical conference in Rome. Pope
Gregory XII approves this change, and
so the calendar is called the Gregorian
calendar. Eleven days are dropped so
that October 15,1582 is the day after
October 4, 1582.
With the Gregorian
calendar, February 29th is omitted in
century years which are not divisible
by 400.
[1] Christopher Clavius (1538-1612),
German mathematician and
astronomer. Immediate source:
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollections
/hst/scientific-identity/fullsize/SIL14-
C4-02a.jpg Ultimate source: A 16th
century engraving after a painting by
Francisco Villamena. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Christopher_Clavius.jpg
[1583 AD]
(CE 1540-1609), French historian and
astronomer, publishes "Opus de
emendatione tempore" (1583; "Study on
the Improvement of Time"), a study of
earlier calendars. In this book
Scaliger compares the computations of
time made by the various civilizations
of the past, corrects their errors, and
is the first to places chronology on a
solidly scientific basis.
Scaliger founds the "Julian Day"
system, where January 1, 4713 BCE is
set to day 1. This system forms a
standard for astronomers through
periods of various diverse calendars,
and is still used today.
[1] Joseph Justus Scaliger source:
http://www.telemachos.hu-berlin.de/bilde
r/gudeman/gudeman.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Joseph_Justus_Scaliger.JPG
[2] Joseph Justus Scaliger, oil
painting by an unknown French artist,
17th century; in the Musée de
Versailles Cliche Musees Nationaux
PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-14115/Joseph-Justus-Scaliger-oil-painti
ng-by-an-unknown-French-artist?articleTy
peId=1
[1585 AD]
1548-1620) , publishes a small pamphlet
in Dutch, "La Thiende" ("The Tenth"),
which contains the introduction of a
decimal system of notating fractions.
[1] Simon Stevin, from English
wikipedia. Older than 100 years, so
it's Public Domain for countries with a
copyright term of life of the author
plus 100 years from en: Portrait by an
unknown artist, library of University
of Leiden. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Simon-stevin.jpeg
[2] Image made by user:Branko. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Stevin-decimal_notation.png
[1586 AD]
al-'Amili (CE 1546-1622), writes works
in mathematics and astronomy
summarizing earlier scientists and is
causes a revival in mathematics in Iran
which was neglected for more than 100
years.
[1586 AD]
1548-1620) , publishes "De Beghinselen
der Weeghconst" (1586; "Statics and
Hydrostatics") which explains Stevin's
discovery that the downward pressure of
a liquid is independent of the shape of
its vessel and depends only on its
height and area of the surface.
Netherlands
[1] Simon Stevin, from English
wikipedia. Older than 100 years, so
it's Public Domain for countries with a
copyright term of life of the author
plus 100 years from en: Portrait by an
unknown artist, library of University
of Leiden. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Simon-stevin.jpeg
[1586 AD]
1548-1620) shows that two objects of
different mass fall at the same speed.
[1] Simon Stevin, from English
wikipedia. Older than 100 years, so
it's Public Domain for countries with a
copyright term of life of the author
plus 100 years from en: Portrait by an
unknown artist, library of University
of Leiden. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Simon-stevin.jpeg
[1589 AD]
20, 1612) invents the first modern
flush toilet.
[1] Portrait of Sir John Harrington PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Sirjharrington.gif
[2] Diagram of Harrington's toilet.
[t: says Cummings Closet..is really
Harington's?]
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:CummingsCloset.gif
[1590 AD]
Italian philosopher, writes "De
immenso, innumerabilibus et
infigurabilibus" ("On the Immeasurable
and Innumerable"), describe the concept
of an atomic basis of matter and being.
[1] Giordano Bruno PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Giordano_Bruno.jpg
[2] Statue of Giordano Bruno in Campo
de Fiori, Rome, Italy. This monument
was erected in 1889, by Italian Masonic
circles, in the site where he was
burned alive for opposing the Catholic
church authority. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Brunostatue.jpg
[1591 AD]
1540-1609), French mathematician,
publishes "In artem analyticem isagoge"
(1591; "Introduction to the Analytical
Arts"), which closely resembles a
modern elementary algebra text.
Vieta is first to use letters to
symbolize constant and unknown numbers,
using consonents for constants and
vowels for unknowns.
Uses Archimedes method of using
polygons to estimate pi. using 393,216
sides in his calculation he gets the
value of pi accurate to 10 decimal
places, the most accurate value up to
this time.
[1] François Viète. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Francois_Viete.jpg
[1592 AD]
1553-1616) , Italian botanist, prints
"De plantis Aegypti liber" (1592; "Book
of Egyptian Plants") which includes the
first European botanical accounts of
coffee, banana, and a genus of the
ginger family.
Alpini is the first to recognize that
plants have gender.
[1] Prospero Alpini PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Prospero_Alpini.jpg
[2] Alpini, engraving Courtesy of the
Ashmolean Museum, Oxford PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-8320/Alpini-engraving?articleTypeId=1
[1592 AD]
[1] Fig. 1. Galileo’s
thermoscope. from: David Sherry,
Thermoscopes, thermometers, and the
foundations of measurement, Studies In
History and Philosophy of Science Part
A, Volume 42, Issue 4, December 2011,
Pages 509-524, ISSN 0039-3681,
10.1016/j.shpsa.2011.07.001. (http://ww
w.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/
S0039368111000616) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/cac
he/MiamiImageURL/1-s2.0-S003936811100061
6-gr1.jpg/0?wchp=dGLzVBA-zSkzS
[2] Thermoscope Instrument to
measure heat and cold invented by
Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) during his
stay in Padua. Santorio Santorio
(1561-1636) made a similar instrument
in Venice in 1612. A precursor of the
modern thermometer, the thermoscope
consists of a glass vessel with a long
neck. The vessel was heated with the
hands and partially immersed, in an
upright position, in a container full
of water. When the heat of the hands
was taken away, the water was observed
to rise in the thermoscope neck. The
experiment showed the changes in air
density produced by variations in
temperature. UNKNOWN
source: http://catalogue.museogalileo.it
/images/cat/approfondimenti_944/AF0020-5
1000_944.jpg
[1595 AD]
1550-1617), Scottish mathematician,
writes a manuscript which describes
four weapons: two kinds of mirrors that
burn opponents using light, a piece of
artillery, and a battle vehicle covered
with metal plates having small holes
for emission of offensive firepower and
moved and directed by men inside,
although none are ever built.
.jpg)
[1] Painting of John Napier PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:John_Napier_%28Painting%29.jpeg
[2] John Napier PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:John_Napier.JPG
[08/??/1596 AD]
1564-1617) , German astronomer, finds
the first variable star, a star that
shows periodic changes in brightness.
Fabricius finds this star (what will be
called Omicron Ceti, and later "Mira")
before the use of the telescope, but is
one of the first after Galileo to start
using a telescope for astronomical
observations.
and northeast Netherlands)
(guess)
[1] David Fabricius
(1564-1617) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.tayabeixo.org/biograf
ias/mar_1q.htm
[1596 AD]
publishes his first major astronomical
work, "Mysterium Cosmographicum" ("The
Sacred Mystery of the Cosmos"), the
first published defense of the
Copernican system.
[1] model of the Solar system from
Mysterium Cosmographicum (1596). from
http://phoenixandturtle.net/images/keple
r.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Kepler-solar-system-1.png
[2] Kepler's Platonic solid model of
the Solar system from Mysterium
Cosmographicum (1596). From:
http://www.georgehart.com/virtual-polyhe
dra/figs/kepler-spheres-2.jpg included
in the page:
http://www.georgehart.com/virtual-polyhe
dra/kepler.html (scroll to the
bottom) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Kepler-solar-system-2.png
[02/17/1600 AD]
Italian philosopher, is burned alive at
the stake.
[1] Giordano Bruno PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Giordano_Bruno.jpg
[2] Statue of Giordano Bruno in Campo
de Fiori, Rome, Italy. This monument
was erected in 1889, by Italian Masonic
circles, in the site where he was
burned alive for opposing the Catholic
church authority. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Brunostatue.jpg
[1600 AD]
Aquapendente (FoBrEsEuS) (CE
1537-1619), Italian physician,
publishes "De Formato Foetu" (1600; "On
the Formation of the Fetus"), which
summarizes his investigations of the
fetal development of many animals,
including human, contains the first
detailed description of the placenta
and opens the field of comparative
embryology. In this book, Fabricius
gives the first full account of the
larynx as a vocal organ and is the
first to demonstrate that the pupil of
the eye changes its size.
Corrects Vesalius who puts eye lens in
middle of eye, by correctly describing
the lens as near the forward (front)
rim.
[1] Girolamo Fabrizi d'Acquapendente
(1537-1619) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Girolamo_Fabrizi_d%27Acquapendente.jp
g
[2] Fabricius ab Aquapendente, oil
painting by an unknown
artist Alinari-Art Resource/EB Inc.
PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-10511/Fabricius-ab-Aquapendente-oil-pai
nting-by-an-unknown-artist?articleTypeId
=1
[1600 AD]
English physician and physicist,
publishes "De Magnete, Magneticisque
Corporibus, et de Magno Magnete
Tellure" (1600; "On the Magnet,
Magnetic Bodies, and the Great Magnet
of the Earth"), which describes his
research on magnetic bodies and
electrical attractions. From
experiments involving a spherical
lodestone, the most powerful magnet
then available, Gilbert concludes that
the earth is a spherical magnet and
recognizes that the compass points to
magnetic poles not up to the stars (or
heavens) as wrongly thought.
Gilbert works with amber which is known
to attract light objects after being
rubbed with a cloth, Gilbert extends
this knowledge by finding other
substances including rock crystal, and
a variety of gems that show the same
property. Gilbert labels these objects
"electrics" from the Greek word for
Amber "Elektron".
Gilbert is the first
to use the terms electric attraction,
electric force, and magnetic pole and
is often considered the father of
electrical studies.
Gilbert invents the first known
electroscope, a device to measure the
quantity of static electricity. This is
the versorium or electrical needle,
which consists simply of a light
metallic needle balanced on a pivot
like a compass needle.
[1] Paiting of William Gilbert (1544 -
1603) Source
http://physics.ship.edu/~mrc/pfs/110/in
side_out/vu1/Galileo/Images/Port/gilbert
.gif Date Author Unknown, after
title page of De Magnete (1600) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:William_Gilbert.jpg
[2] Drawing in Gilbert's book showing
the downward slant of the magnetic
force. PD
source: http://istp.gsfc.nasa.gov/earthm
ag/upto1600.htm
[1602 AD]
(SANKTOrEuS) (CE 1561-1636) , Italian
physician, invents a pulse clock, a
"pulsilogium".
[1] Engraving of Sanctorius of
Padua PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Sanctorius.jpg
[2] Santorio, marble portrait
bust Alinari/Art Resource, New York
PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-14072/Santorio-marble-portrait-bust?art
icleTypeId=1
[1603 AD]
Aquapendente (FoBrEsEuS) (CE
1537-1619), Italian physician,
publishes "De Venarum Ostiolis" (1603;
"On the Valves of the Veins"), which
contains the first clear description of
the semilunar (one-way) valves of the
veins, which will later provided Harvey
with a crucial point in his argument
for circulation of the blood.
[1] Girolamo Fabrizi d'Acquapendente
(1537-1619) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Girolamo_Fabrizi_d%27Acquapendente.jp
g
[2] Fabricius ab Aquapendente, oil
painting by an unknown
artist Alinari-Art Resource/EB Inc.
PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-10511/Fabricius-ab-Aquapendente-oil-pai
nting-by-an-unknown-artist?articleTypeId
=1
[1603 AD]
1572-1625), German astronomer,
publishes "Uranometria", the first star
catalog to show the entire celestial
sphere, and invents an ordered star
naming system of listing each star in a
constellation in order of brightness.
[1] The constellation of Hydrus was
first published in Johann Bayer's
Uranometria atlas. Bayer's Uranometria
opened a new age in the history of
celestial cartography, and was praised
for the careful placement of star
positions and brightnesses and for its
attractive plates. Click on the above
image for an enlarged view. Image
credit: U.S. Naval Observatory
Library PD
source: http://www.aavso.org/images/baye
r.jpg
[2] A print of the copperplate
engraving for Johann Bayer's
Uranometria showing the constellation
Orion. This image is courtesy of the
United States Naval Observatory
Library, who gives explicit permission
to use it so long as the attribution is
attached. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Uranometria_orion.jpg
[01/01/1604 AD]
publishes "Astronomiae Pars Optica"
("The Optical Part of Astronomy")
In this book
Kepler describes the inverse-square law
governing the intensity of light,
reflection by flat and curved mirrors,
and principles of pinhole cameras, as
well as the astronomical implications
of optics such as parallax and the
apparent sizes of heavenly bodies.
"Astronomiae Pars Optica" is generally
recognized as the foundation of modern
optics (though the law of refraction is
conspicuously absent).
(presumably)
[1] A plate from Johannes Kepler's Ad
Vitellionem Paralipomena, quibus
Astronomiae Pars Optica (1604),
illustrating the structure of
eyes. Source:
http://www.hps.cam.ac.uk/starry/keplerbo
oks.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Kepler_Optica.jpg
[2] Johannes Kepler, oil painting by
an unknown artist, 1627; in the
cathedral, Strasbourg, France. Erich
Lessing/Art Resource, New York PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-2965/Johannes-Kepler-oil-painting-by-an
-unknown-artist-1627-in?articleTypeId=1
[1604 AD]
publishes "Ad Vitellionem Paralipomena,
Quibus Astronomiae Pars Optica
Traditur" (1604; "Supplement to Witelo,
in Which Is Expounded the Optical Part
of Astronomy") which contains the first
accurate description of how light from
a single point forms a cone with a
circular base at the pupil, and then
meets again at a single point on the
retina.
(presumably)
[1] A diagram from Johannes Kepler's
1611 Strena Seu de Nive Sexangula,
illustrating what came to be known as
the Kepler conjecture. Source:
http://www.math.sunysb.edu/~tony/whatsne
w/column/pennies-1200/cass1.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Kepler_conjecture_2.jpg
[2] Johannes Kepler, oil painting by
an unknown artist, 1627; in the
cathedral, Strasbourg, France. Erich
Lessing/Art Resource, New York PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-2965/Johannes-Kepler-oil-painting-by-an
-unknown-artist-1627-in?articleTypeId=1
[1605 AD]
English philosopher, published
"Advancement of Learning", in which he
argues against mysticism and tradition.
[1] Sir Francis Bacon [t notice the
collar, interesting how things like
that come in and go out of
popularity] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Francis_Bacon.jpg
[2] Francis Bacon, engraving by
William Marshall, 1640 Mary Evans
Picture Library PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-8669/Francis-Bacon-engraving-by-William
-Marshall-1640?articleTypeId=1
[1605 AD]
Johannes Kepler (CE 1571-1630)
recognizes that Mars moves in an
elliptical orbit.
[1] A diagram from Johannes Kepler's
1611 Strena Seu de Nive Sexangula,
illustrating what came to be known as
the Kepler conjecture. Source:
http://www.math.sunysb.edu/~tony/whatsne
w/column/pennies-1200/cass1.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Kepler_conjecture_2.jpg
[2] Johannes Kepler, oil painting by
an unknown artist, 1627; in the
cathedral, Strasbourg, France. Erich
Lessing/Art Resource, New York PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-2965/Johannes-Kepler-oil-painting-by-an
-unknown-artist-1627-in?articleTypeId=1
[1606 AD]
Joseph Justus Scaliger's (SkoLiJR) (CE
1540-1609) book "Thesaurus temporum,
complectens Eusebi Pamphili Chronicon"
(1606; "The Thesaurus of Time,
Including the Chronicle of Eusebius
Pamphilus") is published. This book is
a reconstruction of the Chronicle of
the early Christian historian Eusebius
Pamphilus and a collection of Greek and
Latin remnants placed in chronological
order.
Scaliger founds the "Julian Day"
system, where January 1, 4713 BCE is
set to day 1. This system forms a
standard for astronomers through
periods of various diverse calendars,
and is still used today.
[1] Joseph Justus Scaliger source:
http://www.telemachos.hu-berlin.de/bilde
r/gudeman/gudeman.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Joseph_Justus_Scaliger.JPG
[2] Joseph Justus Scaliger, oil
painting by an unknown French artist,
17th century; in the Musée de
Versailles Cliche Musees Nationaux
PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-14115/Joseph-Justus-Scaliger-oil-painti
ng-by-an-unknown-French-artist?articleTy
peId=1
[1606 AD]
1560-1616) , German alchemist,
publishes "Alchymia" (1606; "Alchemy"),
the first systematic chemistry
textbook, in which Libavius is the
first to describe the preparation of
hydrochloric acid. tin tetrachloride,
ammonium sulfate, and antimony sulfide.
[1608 AD]
Hans Lippershey (LiPRsE) (CE
1570-1619), German-Dutch optician,
invents the first telescope (and
microscope).
[1] Hans Lippershey (1570-September
1619), Dutch lensmaker. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Hans_Lippershey.jpg
[2] Description English: Early
depiction of a ‘Dutch telescope’
from the “Emblemata of zinne-werck”
(Middelburg, 1624) of the poet and
statesman Johan de Brune (1588-1658).
The print was engraved by Adriaen van
de Venne, who, together with his
brother Jan Pieters van de Venne,
printed books not far from the original
optical workshop of Hans
Lipperhey. Date 1624 Source
http://www.phys.uu.nl/~vgent/telesc
ope/telescopenl.htm Author Adriaen
Pietersz. van de Venne (1589–1662)
Link back to Creator infobox
template PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/51/Emblemata_1624.jpg
[08/??/1609 AD]
can magnify object 8 times larger to
the Venetian Senate. Galileo is
rewarded with life tenure (which makes
being fired very difficult) and a
doubling of his salary. Galileo is now
one of the highest-paid professors at
the University of Padua.
[1] Two of Galileo's first telescopes;
in the Institute and Museum of the
History of Science,
Florence. Scala/Art Resource, New York
PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-2916/Two-of-Galileos-first-telescopes-i
n-the-Institute-and-Museum?articleTypeId
=1
[2] Galileo Galilei. Portrait in
crayon by Leoni Source: French WP
(Utilisateur:Kelson via
http://iafosun.ifsi.rm.cnr.it/~iafolla/h
ome/homegrsp.html) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Galilee.jpg
[1609 AD]
1564-1642), understands that the
distance covered by a falling body is
proportional to the square of the
elapsed time.
This law is called the "Law of falling
bodies". In empty space, all bodies
fall to earth with the same constant
acceleration and in proportion to the
square of time. This motion is called
uniformly accelerated motion.
This law will later be expressed (by
whom) as s = 1/2 (at2), where s is
distance, t is time, and a is
acceleration. (state by whom)
Galileo finds
that the trajectory of a projectile is
a parabola.
Italy
[1] Galileo Galilei. Portrait in crayon
by Leoni Source: French WP
(Utilisateur:Kelson via
http://iafosun.ifsi.rm.cnr.it/~iafolla/h
ome/homegrsp.html) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Galilee.jpg
[2] Original portrait of Galileo
Galilei by Justus Sustermans painted in
1636. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Galileo.arp.300pix.jpg
[1609 AD]
can also be used as a microscope) after
hearing about the invention created in
Holland.
[1] Galileo Galilei. Portrait in crayon
by Leoni Source: French WP
(Utilisateur:Kelson via
http://iafosun.ifsi.rm.cnr.it/~iafolla/h
ome/homegrsp.html) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Galilee.jpg
[2] Original portrait of Galileo
Galilei by Justus Sustermans painted in
1636. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Galileo.arp.300pix.jpg
[1609 AD]
shows that planets have elliptical
orbits.
Stuttgart Region in the German state of
Baden-Württemberg, 30 km west of
Stuttgart's center)
[1] Johannes Kepler, oil painting by an
unknown artist, 1627; in the cathedral,
Strasbourg, France. Erich Lessing/Art
Resource, New York PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-2965/Johannes-Kepler-oil-painting-by-an
-unknown-artist-1627-in?articleTypeId=1
[2] A 1610 portrait of Johannes Kepler
by an unknown PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Johannes_Kepler_1610.jpg
[01/??/1610 AD]
period determined by Galileo Galilei.
[1] Galileo's Letter to Prince of
Venice PD
source: http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/galileo
/ganymede/manuscript1.jpg
[2] Galileo's illustrations of the
Moon, from his Sidereus Nuncius (1610;
The Sidereal Messenger). Courtesy of
the Joseph Regenstein Library, The
University of Chicago PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-2914/Galileos-illustrations-of-the-Moon
-from-his-Sidereus-Nuncius?articleTypeId
=1
[06/??/1611 AD]
(CE 1587-1615) shows that the Sun has
spots and rotates around its own axis.
and northeast Netherlands)
(guess)
[1] Johannes Fabricius PD
source: http://www.daviddarling.info/enc
yclopedia/F/Fabricius.html
[1611 AD]
circulates a manuscript that will be
published posthumously as "Somnium"
("The Dream") about a man who travels
to the moon in a dream, and is the
first science fiction (or futuristic)
book.
[1] ''SOMNIUM'' 1634 PD
source: http://www.um.zagan.pl/kepler/im
age/somnium.jpg
[2] Johannes Kepler, oil painting by
an unknown artist, 1627; in the
cathedral, Strasbourg, France. Erich
Lessing/Art Resource, New York PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-2965/Johannes-Kepler-oil-painting-by-an
-unknown-artist-1627-in?articleTypeId=1
[1611 AD]
publishes a short pamphlet entitled
"Strena Seu de Nive Sexangula" ("A New
Year's Gift of Hexagonal Snow") which
investigates an atomistic basis for the
symmetry of snowflakes, and explores
the most efficient way to pack spheres.
[1] A diagram from Johannes Kepler's
1611 Strena Seu de Nive Sexangula,
illustrating what came to be known as
the Kepler conjecture. Source:
http://www.math.sunysb.edu/~tony/whatsne
w/column/pennies-1200/cass1.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Kepler_conjecture_2.jpg
[2] Johannes Kepler, oil painting by
an unknown artist, 1627; in the
cathedral, Strasbourg, France. Erich
Lessing/Art Resource, New York PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-2965/Johannes-Kepler-oil-painting-by-an
-unknown-artist-1627-in?articleTypeId=1
[1611 AD]
completes the publishing of "Epitome
astronomiae Copernicanae" ("Epitome of
Copernican Astronomy") (published in
three parts from 1618-1621), the first
textbook of Copernican astronomy.
[1] A diagram from Johannes Kepler's
1611 Strena Seu de Nive Sexangula,
illustrating what came to be known as
the Kepler conjecture. Source:
http://www.math.sunysb.edu/~tony/whatsne
w/column/pennies-1200/cass1.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Kepler_conjecture_2.jpg
[2] Johannes Kepler, oil painting by
an unknown artist, 1627; in the
cathedral, Strasbourg, France. Erich
Lessing/Art Resource, New York PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-2965/Johannes-Kepler-oil-painting-by-an
-unknown-artist-1627-in?articleTypeId=1
[1611 AD]
German Astronomer, publishes the first
telescopic observation of the Andromeda
galaxy, describing the sight as "like a
candle seen at night through a horn"
(referring to horn lanterns, then
common).
[1] Simon Marius, (January 10, 1573 -
December 26, 1624), German
astronomer. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Simon_Marius.jpg
[01/12/1612 AD]
sInR?) (CE 1575-1650), German
Astronomer, publishes "Tres Epistolae
de Maculis Solaribus" ("Three Letters
on Solar Spots"), in which he claims to
have observed sunspots on a projection
of the Sun, before Galileo on March in
1611, which Galileo disputes.
This results in a controversy with
Galileo, who claims that he was the
first to discover sunspots.
Scheiner publishes this book under the
pseudonym "Apelles latens post
tabulam", or "Apelles hiding behind the
painting".
(presumably)
[1] Sunspot plate from Scheiner's
``Tres Epistolae'' (650 x 505;
250K) http://www.math.yorku.ca/SCS/Gall
ery/milestone/sec3.html PD/Corel
source: http://cnx.rice.edu/content/m119
70/latest/tres_epistolae.gif
[2] Christoph Scheiner No source
specified. Please edit this image
description and provide a source. Date
1725 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Scheiner_christoph.gif
[1612 AD]
(SANKTOrEuS) (CE 1561-1636) , Italian
physician, is the first to use a
thermometer (one invented by Galileo
that uses a liquid and air trapped in a
tube) to measure the temperature of
humans.
[1] Engraving of Sanctorius of
Padua PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Sanctorius.jpg
[2] Santorio, marble portrait
bust Alinari/Art Resource, New York
PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-14072/Santorio-marble-portrait-bust?art
icleTypeId=1
[1614 AD]
1550-1617) invents exponential notation
and logarithms.
[1] Painting of John Napier PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:John_Napier_%28Painting%29.jpeg
[2] John Napier PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:John_Napier.JPG
[1614 AD]
(SANKTOrEuS) (CE 1561-1636) , Italian
physician, publishes "De Statica
Medicina" (1614; "On Medical
Measurement") is the first systematic
study of basal metabolism (the average
rate that a body breaks apart molecules
for fuel).
[1] Engraving of Sanctorius of
Padua PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Sanctorius.jpg
[2] Santorio, marble portrait
bust Alinari/Art Resource, New York
PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-14072/Santorio-marble-portrait-bust?art
icleTypeId=1
[1614 AD]
German Astronomer, publishes "Mundus
Iovialis", in which he names the 4
major moons of Jupiter: Io, Europa,
Ganymede, Callisto after four Gods
closely related to Jupiter (Zeus) in
myths, and claims to have seen
Jupiter's four major moons some days
before Galileo.
[1] Simon Marius, (January 10, 1573 -
December 26, 1624), German
astronomer. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Simon_Marius.jpg
[1616 AD]
heresy by Pope "Paul V" (Camillo
Borghese).
[1] Galileo Galilei. Portrait in crayon
by Leoni Source: French WP
(Utilisateur:Kelson via
http://iafosun.ifsi.rm.cnr.it/~iafolla/h
ome/homegrsp.html) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Galilee.jpg
[2] Original portrait of Galileo
Galilei by Justus Sustermans painted in
1636. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Galileo.arp.300pix.jpg
[1616 AD]
understands the circulatory system.
[1] William Harvey Library of
Congress PD
source: http://www.answers.com/William+H
arvey?cat=health
[2] William Harvey Source University
of Texas Libraries, The University of
Texas at Austin PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:William_Harvey.jpg
[1616 AD]
builds the earliest known reflecting
telescope.
[1] Nicolas Zucchi (1586-1670) PD
source: http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/opti
cs/timeline/people/zucchi.html
[1617 AD]
English mathematician, publishes
"Logarithmorum Chilias Prima"
("Introduction to Logarithms"), which
describes using logarithms with base 10
and includes the logarithms of numbers
from 1 to 1,000, calculated to 14
decimal places.
[1] Briggs, Henry (Vlacq,
A.) Arithmetica
Logarithmica London 1624 disbound ID
#: B277.82 LOC: CHM PD
source: http://research.microsoft.com/~g
bell/CyberMuseum_files/Bell_Book_Files/b
ooks.htm
[1619 AD]
publishes "Harmonices Mundi"
("Harmonies of the World") which
includes his third law: that the square
of the period of orbit of a planet is
proportional to the cube of its
distance from the Sun.
[1] A hand-annotated illustration plate
from Johannes Kepler's Harmonices mundi
(1619), showing the perfect
solids. source:
http://hsci.cas.ou.edu/digitized/16thCen
tury/Kepler/1619/Kepler-1619-pl-3-image/
PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Kepler-1619-pl-3.jpg
[2] Johannes Kepler, oil painting by
an unknown artist, 1627; in the
cathedral, Strasbourg, France. Erich
Lessing/Art Resource, New York PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-2965/Johannes-Kepler-oil-painting-by-an
-unknown-artist-1627-in?articleTypeId=1
[1619 AD]
sInR?) (CE 1575-1650), German
Astronomer, publishes "Oculus hoc est:
Fundamentum opticum", in which Scheiner
recognizes that the curvature of the
lens in the human eye changes as the
eye focuses to different distances.
[1] Christoph Scheiner No source
specified. Please edit this image
description and provide a source. Date
1725 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Scheiner_christoph.gif
[2] Pantograph, from Book
Pantographice seu ars delineandi, Page
29 Source
http://fermi.imss.fi.it/rd/bdv?/bdviewe
r/bid=000000920801 Date 1631 Author
Christoph Scheiner PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Pantograph_by_Christoph_Scheiner.jpg
[1620 AD]
"New Atlantis" is published
posthumously in 1627. This book
describes an island governed by an
Academy of Sciences. This idea will
find partial realization with the
organization of the Royal Society in
1660.
[1] Sir Francis Bacon [t notice the
collar, interesting how things like
that come in and go out of
popularity] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Francis_Bacon.jpg
[2] Francis Bacon, engraving by
William Marshall, 1640 Mary Evans
Picture Library PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-8669/Francis-Bacon-engraving-by-William
-Marshall-1640?articleTypeId=1
[1621 AD]
[1] Willibrord
Snellius http://images.google.com/imgre
s?imgurl=http://tau.fesg.tu-muenchen.de/
~iapg/web/fame/images/geo/snellius.jpg&i
mgrefurl=http://tau.fesg.tu-muenchen.de/
~iapg/web/fame/seiten/snellius.php&h=584
&w=407&sz=81&hl=en&sig2=5XbrrVTx-PVInTZc
fU_5ng&start=1&tbnid=QsmS80Z3DsqbhM:&tbn
h=135&tbnw=94&ei=psvoRKCJLLP2wQGCnPDfDg&
prev=/images%3Fq%3D%2522Snellius%2522%26
svnum%3D100%26hl%3Den%26lr%3D%26safe%3Do
ff%26client%3Dfirefox-a%26rls%3Dorg.mozi
lla:en-US:official%26sa%3DN http://tau.
fesg.tu-muenchen.de/~iapg/web/fame/image
s/geo/snellius.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Willebrord_Snellius.jpg
[2] Snell's law equation GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sne
ll%27s_law#_ref-4
[1622 AD]
1574-1660), English mathematician
invents the first slide-rule, two
identical linear or circular
logarithmic scales, used to perform
calculations by moving them
mechanically by hand.
(presumably)
[1] Portrait of William Oughtred, from
http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~hist
ory/PictDisplay/Oughtred.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Oughtred.jpg
[1624 AD]
[1] Description Drebbel's first
submarine Date 17th
century Source
http://www.rnsubmus.co.uk/images/ph
otodp/sm001%20-%20Van%20Drebbel.jpg Aut
hor Unknown Permission (Reusing
this file) See
below. Lithographie aus dem Jahre
1626 von G. W. Tweedale. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/fe/Van_Drebbel.jpg
[2] Description English: Cornelis
Drebbel Alcmariensis.Son of Jacob Jansz
Dremmel en Hilgont Jans. Born in 1572,
died in Londen in 1631. Nederlands:
Cornelis Drebbel Alcmariensis. Zoon van
Jacob Jansz Dremmel en Hilgont Jans.
Geboren in 1572, overleden in Londen in
1631. Date 1631 Source
http://www.archiefalkmaar.nl/ Auth
or Sichem, C. van PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a0/Drebbel_Van_Sichem_ca
_1631_groot.jpg
[1627 AD]
publishes the "Rudolphine Tables", the
planetary tables meant to replace the
Prussian Tables of Erasmus Reinhold.
This book includes the first time
estimates for the "transit" of the
planets Mercury and Venus across the
face of the Sun. These transits have
never been observed before, but
according to the sun-centered theory
have to take place.
[1] from
http://www.britannica.com/eb/art-2966/Fr
ontispiece-from-Tabulae-Rudolphinae-by-J
ohannes-Kepler?articleTypeId=1 Frontisp
iece from Tabulae Rudolphinae (1627;
''Rudolphine Tables'') by Johannes
Kepler. This is one of the most famous
and richly symbolic images in the
history of science. The figures, from
left to right, are the astronomers
Hipparchus, Nicolaus Copernicus, an
anonymous ancient observer, Tycho
Brahe, and Ptolemy, each surrounded by
symbols of their work. The pillars in
the background are made of wood; those
in the foreground are made of brick and
marble, symbolizing the progress of
astronomy. Astronomical instruments
serve as decorations. The figures on
the cornice symbolize mathematical
sciences; Kepler's patron, the Holy
Roman emperor Rudolph II, is
represented by the eagle. On the base,
from left to right, are Kepler in his
study, a map of Tycho Brahe's island of
Ven, and a printing press. The writing
at the bottom is Kepler's; this copy
was given by him to a friend, Benjamin
Ursinus. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Libr0310.jpg
[2] World map in: ''Tabulae
Rudolphinae : quibus astronomicae
....'' by Johannes Kepler, 1627.
Source: NOAA
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Kepler-world.jpg
[1628 AD]
publishes the circulation of blood
theory in a small book of 72 pages,
titled "Exercitatio Anatomica de Motu
Cordis et Sanguinis in Animalibus" ("An
Anatomical Exercise Concerning the
Motion of the Heart and Blood in
Animals"). Harvey is ridiculed for
refuting Galen, he is called
"Circulator" which is Latin slang for
the name given to people who sell
medicines at a circus.
Germany
[1] Woodcut depicting William Harvey's
theory of the circulation of blood,
from his Exercitatio Anatomica de Motu
Cordis et Sanguinis in Animalibus
(1628). The Granger Collection, New
York PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-15453/Woodcut-depicting-William-Harveys
-theory-of-the-circulation-of-blood?arti
cleTypeId=1
[2] William Harvey Library of
Congress PD
source: http://www.answers.com/William+H
arvey?cat=health
[1629 AD]
(CE 1598-1647), Italian mathematician,
develops his "method of indivisibles",
a method of determining the size of
geometric figures similar to the
methods of integral calculus.
[1] Bonaventura Cavalieri PD
source: http://matematica.uni-bocconi.it
/galeazzi/capitolo12.htm
[2] Monument to Cavalieri in
Milan. CC
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:IMG_4064_-_Milano%2C_Palazzo_di_Brera
_-_Cavalieri%2C_Bonaventura_-_Foto_Giova
nni_Dall%27Orto_19-jan_2007.jpg
[1630 AD]
Flemish astronomer repeats the
experiment done by Aristarchos to
measure the distance to the sun during
a half moon, and gets an estimate 12
times Aristachos' estimate, but still
1/3 of the distance too short.
[1631 AD]
1574-1660), English mathematician
publishes "Clavis Mathematicae" ("The
Key to Mathematics"), in which he
introduces the "X" symbol for
multiplication, and the abbreviations
sin, cos, and tan used for the
trigonometric functions sine, cosine,
and tangent still used today.
(presumably)
[1] Portrait of William Oughtred, from
http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~hist
ory/PictDisplay/Oughtred.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Oughtred.jpg
[1631 AD]
1584-1637), French mathematician,
invents the "vernier scale" (pronounced
with the r in England and the USA), a
device capable of precise measurement.
death location)
[1] using the vernier caliper to
measure a nut Source own image Date
October 2006 Author Joaquim Alves
Gaspar GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Using_the_caliper_new_en.gif
[2] Zoom-in on ''Messschieber.jpg''
from commons made by danish user
Ultraman. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Close_up_of_vernier_scale.jpg
[1631 AD]
[1] Pierre Gassendi
(1592-1655). Peinture de Louis
Édouard Rioult. (Base Joconde du
Ministère de la Culture) PD
source: http://www.voltaire-integral.com
/Html/14/04CATALO_1_2.html
[2] Scientist: Gassendi, Pierre
(1592 - 1655) Discipline(s): Physics
; Astronomy Print Artist: Jacques
Lubin, 1637-1695 Medium: Engraving
Original Dimensions: Graphic: 17.6 x
14.1 cm / Sheet: 27.9 x 21.7 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/by_n
ame_display_results.cfm?scientist=Gassen
di
[1631 AD]
1592-1655), measures the speed of
sound.
[1] Pierre Gassendi
(1592-1655). Peinture de Louis
Édouard Rioult. (Base Joconde du
Ministère de la Culture) PD
source: http://www.voltaire-integral.com
/Html/14/04CATALO_1_2.html
[2] Scientist: Gassendi, Pierre
(1592 - 1655) Discipline(s): Physics
; Astronomy Print Artist: Jacques
Lubin, 1637-1695 Medium: Engraving
Original Dimensions: Graphic: 17.6 x
14.1 cm / Sheet: 27.9 x 21.7 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/by_n
ame_display_results.cfm?scientist=Gassen
di
[1632 AD]
the Two Chief World Systems" in support
of the sun-centered system.
[1] Galileo's Letter to Prince of
Venice PD
source: http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/galileo
/ganymede/manuscript1.jpg
[2] Galileo's illustrations of the
Moon, from his Sidereus Nuncius (1610;
The Sidereal Messenger). Courtesy of
the Joseph Regenstein Library, The
University of Chicago PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-2914/Galileos-illustrations-of-the-Moon
-from-his-Sidereus-Nuncius?articleTypeId
=1
[06/22/1633 AD]
condemned to life imprisonment by the
Inquisition.
[1] Galileo's Letter to Prince of
Venice PD
source: http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/galileo
/ganymede/manuscript1.jpg
[2] Galileo's illustrations of the
Moon, from his Sidereus Nuncius (1610;
The Sidereal Messenger). Courtesy of
the Joseph Regenstein Library, The
University of Chicago PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-2914/Galileos-illustrations-of-the-Moon
-from-his-Sidereus-Nuncius?articleTypeId
=1
[1633 AD]
(DAKoRT) describes the law of inertia
(a body preserves its motion) and
compares light to a ball.
[1] The balls of the ''second element''
which I think is a theory of particles
similar to an aether that fill empty
space, but its not clear[t] PD/Corel
source: http://www.princeton.edu/~hos/mi
ke/texts/descartes/world/Image9.gif
[2] Drawing of star systems together
from Le Monde[t] PD/Corel
source: http://www.princeton.edu/~hos/mi
ke/texts/descartes/world/world2.gif
[1635 AD]
1588-1648), French Mathematician, forms
the informal, private "Académie
Parisienne" (the precursor to the
French Academy of Sciences).
[1] Marin Mersenne PD
source: http://www.nndb.com/people/576/0
00107255/
[2] Mersenne, Marin (1588-1648) PD
source: http://www.cartage.org.lb/en/the
mes/biographies/MainBiographies/M/Mersen
ne/1.html
[1635 AD]
[1] Table of string
vibrations from: Marin Marsenne, tr:
R. E. Chapman, ''Harmonie
Universelle'', 1635, 1957,
p194. UNKNOWN
source: Marin Marsenne, tr: R. E.
Chapman, "Harmonie Universelle", 1635,
1957, p194.
[2] Ted Huntington adapted
from: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikip
edia/en/math/6/c/8/6c88fce3e57d1eac8408b
abe264e1795.png GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/math/6/c/8/6c88fce3e57d1eac8408
babe264e1795.png
[1636 AD]
Province of Massachusetts Bay, and is
the first college in America.
[1] Lt Gov William Stoughton
(1631-1701) overlooking one of the
buildings of Harvard College, quite
probably Stoughton Hall for which he
was its main benefactor. The painting
dates to circa 1700. This picture,
which was taken from: Albert Bushnell
Hart, Commonwealth History of
Massachusetts (1927, vol. 1) opposite
p. 562; was originally taken from an
original portrait presumably still in
the possession of Harvard
University. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:HarvardStaughton.jpg
[1636 AD]
c1612-1644), invents the micrometer (a
device for precision measurement)
[1] ''Gascoigne''s micrometer'' - via
Richard Towneley - as drawn by Robert
Hooke for the Royal Society,1667. PD
source: http://www.narrowbandimaging.com
/Northern%20Astronomical%20Review.htm
[2] [t Modern micrometer] Outside
micrometer, inside micrometer, and
depth micrometer. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Micrometers.jpg
[1637 AD]
[1] Portrait of René Descartes by
Frans Hals (1648) Description René
Descartes, french philosopher (Oil on
canvas, 68 x 77, Owned by the Musée du
Louvre Paris) Source No source
specified. Please edit this image
description and provide a source. Date
1648 Author Frans Hals PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Descartes.jpg
[2] Scientist: Descartes, René (1596
- 1650) Discipline(s): Physics ;
Mathematics Print Artist: William
Holl Medium: Engraving Original
Artist: Franz Hals, ca.1582-1666
Original Dimensions: Graphic: 12.7 x
10.3 cm / Sheet: 25.5 x 17.5 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=d
[1638 AD]
speed of light.
Italy
[1] Galileo's Letter to Prince of
Venice PD
source: http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/galileo
/ganymede/manuscript1.jpg
[2] Galileo's illustrations of the
Moon, from his Sidereus Nuncius (1610;
The Sidereal Messenger). Courtesy of
the Joseph Regenstein Library, The
University of Chicago PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-2914/Galileos-illustrations-of-the-Moon
-from-his-Sidereus-Nuncius?articleTypeId
=1
[1639 AD]
Western Hemisphere is the Hôtel-Dieu
du Précieux Sang, established in
Quebec city in New France.
Canada)
[1] L'hôtel Dieu de Québec Copyright
© 2002-04 (Créations Chez
Magy) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.ph-ludwigsburg.de/htm
l/2b-frnz-s-01/overmann/baf4/quebec/inde
x.html
[1639 AD]
(presumably)
[1] This illustration, recreated from
Horrocks's notes by the prominent
Polish astronomer Hevelius, shows three
positions of the planet Venus as it
crosses the face of the Sun. Notice the
two black and one white dot (the
progression of Venus) in the lower left
portion of the central circle (the
Sun). PD
source: http://www.adlerplanetarium.org/
research/collections/transit-of-venus/jh
evelius1662b.jpg
[2] Jeremiah Horrocks observand
tranzitul lui Venus PD
source: http://aira.astro.ro/2004/Venus2
/Importanta_fisa%20scurta.htm
[1640 AD]
1592-1655), performs the experiment of
releasing a ball from the mast of a
moving ship, and as he expects, the
ball falls to the foot of the mast in a
straight line.
[1] Pierre Gassendi
(1592-1655). Peinture de Louis
Édouard Rioult. (Base Joconde du
Ministère de la Culture) PD
source: http://www.voltaire-integral.com
/Html/14/04CATALO_1_2.html
[2] Scientist: Gassendi, Pierre
(1592 - 1655) Discipline(s): Physics
; Astronomy Print Artist: Jacques
Lubin, 1637-1695 Medium: Engraving
Original Dimensions: Graphic: 17.6 x
14.1 cm / Sheet: 27.9 x 21.7 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/by_n
ame_display_results.cfm?scientist=Gassen
di
[1641 AD]
1614-1672), French physician,publishes
"Praxeos medicae idea nova" (1671, "New
idea in medical practice").
Sylvius is one of the
earliest and strongest defenders of
Harvey's view of blood circulation.
Sylvius is the
first to reject health being dependent
on the balance of 4 humors (blood,
phlegm, black bile, and yellow bile), a
theory that goes back to Greek health
science (medicine).
Sylvius is the first to make
gin and uses it to treat kidney
ailments.
Sylvius correctly views digestion as a
chemical process.
[1] Franciscus Sylvius, detail of an
engraving. BBC Hulton Picture Library
PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-14633/Franciscus-Sylvius-detail-of-an-e
ngraving
[2] Franciscus Sylvius Pildiallkiri:
Franciscus Deleboe Sylvius, Medicinæ,
practicæ in academia Lugduno-Batava
professor. Allikas:
http://clendening.kumc.edu/dc/pc/sylvius
f.jpg PD
source: http://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pil
t:Sylviusf.jpg
[1641 AD]
[1] Kalthoff 1641 translated with
Google from:
http://www.earmi.it/A-Enciclopedia/ripet
izione.html The first attempt at a
mechanical repetition of the shot goes
back to the German Peter Kalthoff,
which operates in Denmark, who in 1641
invented and built in 1646. It was a
rifle with a wheel in the dust
reservoir a reservoir for calcium and
balls under the barrel, breech block
has three rooms that can move
sideways. PD
source: http://www.earmi.it/A-Encicloped
ia/img/Kalthoff.png
[2] translated with Google from:
http://www.earmi.it/A-Enciclopedia/ripet
izione.html In Italy as early as
1572 the Milan Marcantonio Valgrana
proposes a rifle capable of firing 4
shots below, but of questionable
functionality. This was followed in 600
different mechanical repeating rifles,
probably inspired by Kalthoff, but with
original solutions. It certainly
reminds weapon Berselli James (1660)
and other Fresh Water Sebastiano
(1619-1692) and the Florentine Michele
Lorenzoni (died 1735). These have gone
down in history as ''system Lorenzoni''
and are innovative compared to
Kalthoff. Tanks for powder and ball
(well 25) both are in football, behind
a circular rotor driven by an external
lever, the gun with the barrel is
turned down so that powder and ball
fall under gravity, the first movement
of lever drops a ball in the barrel
where it is retained by a ring of
forcing, the second movement takes a
dose of dust. There followed many
other weapons, but none went beyond the
experimental models. The technology of
the time did not allow the creation of
mechanisms are too delicate and until
the invention of the metal cartridge
case was difficult to keep the power is
communicated by a charge al'altra. The
first weapon is the repetition really
functioning Paterson Colt revolver of
1936 followed by rifle-revolver .44
Rifle Dragon namely the
Whitneyville-Hartford Dragon Colt
Revolver of 1847. To solve the problem
remained that the number of hits
greater than 6-8. The first weapon
taken from a manual repeater army
Spencer (March 1860) that has a
reservoir of calcium and seven
cartridges in a loading lever with
shutter lock shooting. The cartridge
was rimfire cartridge case with copper,
was calculated. 13.3 mm which
represented an improvement over the
previous much larger calibers.
Contemporary Henry and the system
immediately after the Winchester. PD
source: http://www.earmi.it/A-Encicloped
ia/img/lorenzoni.png
[1642 AD]
1623-1662) invents a mechanical
calculating machine that can add and
subtract.
[1] A Pascaline, an early
calculator. (Machine à calculer de
Blaise Pascal sans sous ni deniers,
signed by Pascal 1652) English: This
item is on display at the Musée des
Arts et Métiers, Paris Inv 823-1 GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Arts_et_Metiers_Pascaline_dsc03869.jp
g
[2] Scientist: Pascal, Blaise (1623
- 1662) Discipline(s): Mathematics ;
Physics Print Artist: T. Dale
Medium: Engraving Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 14.4 x 8.1 cm /
Sheet: 27.8 x 21.3 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/cf/by_n
ame_display_results.cfm?scientist=Pascal
[1643 AD]
Italian physicist, Evangelista
Torricelli (TORriceLlE) (CE 1608-1647)
is the first human to create a
sustained vacuum. Pursuing a suggestion
from Galileo, Torricelli fills a glass
tube 4 feet (1.2 m) long with mercury
and inverts the tube into a dish.
Torricelli observes that some of the
mercury does not flow out and that the
space above the mercury in the tube is
a vacuum.
Torricelli observes that the height of
the mercury in the tube changes from
day to day and
correctly concludes that
this is caused by changes in
atmospheric pressure (the weight of the
air on earth).
This device is also the first
barometer, a measure of pressure
exerted by air.
[1] Frontispiece to ''Lezioni
accademiche d'Evangelista
Torricelli....'', published in 1715.
Library Call Number Q155 .T69
1715. Image ID: libr0367, Treasures of
the NOAA Library Collection
Photographer: Archival Photograph by
Mr. Steve Nicklas, NOS, NGS Secondary
source: NOAA Central Library National
Oceanic & Atmospheric Adminstration
(NOAA), USA
http://www.photolib.noaa.gov/library/lib
r0367.htm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Libr0367.jpg
[2] Frontispiece and title page to
''Lezioni accademiche d'Evangelista
Torricelli ....'', published in 1715.
Library Call Number Q155 .T69
1715. Image ID: libr0366, Treasures of
the NOAA Library Collection
Photographer: Archival Photograph by
Mr. Steve Nicklas, NOS, NGS Secondary
source: NOAA Central Library National
Oceanic & Atmospheric Adminstration
(NOAA),
USA http://www.photolib.noaa.gov/librar
y/libr0366.htm PD
source: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wik
i/Image:Libr0366.jpg
[1644 AD]
1611-1687), German astronomer, is the
first to see the phases of Mercury.
[1] Johannes Hevelius. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Johannes_Helvelius.jpg
[2] llustration from ''Geschichte der
Astron. Messwerkzeuge, 1907, Autor J.A.
Repsold 1919'' German subtitle says
(Peter) Crüger's large azimuthal
quadrant, completed by Hevel, according
to Hevel's Machina coelestis (taken
from German Wikipedia) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Hevelius-Quadrant.jpg
[1645 AD]
recognizes that the strength that the
Sun holds the planets with decreases by
the distance squared.
[1] Ismaël Bullialdus PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Boulliau.jpeg
[2] Ismaelis Bvllialdi Astronomia
Philolaica : title page Photo:
COPYRIGHTED Book: PD
source: http://diglib.hab.de/wdb.php?dir
=drucke/2-1-4-astron-2f-1&image=00005
[1647 AD]
1611-1687), German astronomer,
publishes "Selenographia" ("Pictures of
the Moon"), and atlas of the moon's
surface, using hand-engraved copper
plates for the illustrations. Hevelius
names parts of the moon after places on
earth, calling the dark flat areas
"seas" (maria in Latin).
[1] Subject : map of the moon
(Selenographia) Author : Johannes
Hevelius Date : 1647 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Hevelius_Map_of_the_Moon_1647.jpg
[2] Johannes Hevelius. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Johannes_Helvelius.jpg
[09/19/1648 AD]
1623-1662) proves that atmospheric
pressure changes at different
elevations. This implies that empty
space (a vacuum) exists above the
atmosphere.
[1] Scientist: Pascal, Blaise (1623 -
1662) Discipline(s): Mathematics ;
Physics Print Artist: T. Dale
Medium: Engraving Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 14.4 x 8.1 cm /
Sheet: 27.8 x 21.3 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/cf/by_n
ame_display_results.cfm?scientist=Pascal
[2] Blaise Pascal source :
http://www.thocp.net/biographies/pascal_
blaise.html PD
source: %20Blaise
[1648 AD]
alchemist, Jan Baptista van Helmont's
(CE 1580-1644), "Ortus Medicinæ (1648;
"Origin of Medicine") is published
(posthumously) in which Helmont is the
first to label a substance as a "gas"
and to identify the gas "carbon
dioxide".
[1] Portrait of Helmont, mistakenly
thought to be Robert Hooke see
http://www.libraries.uc.edu/source/volfo
ur/oesper2.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:HOOKE_Robert.jpg
[2] Fig. 2. Etching of Joan Baptista
Van Helmont (1579-1644) and his son
Franciscus Mercurius Van Helmont
(1614-1699), from J.B. Van Helmont,
Ortus medicinae (Amsterdam: Elsevier,
1648) (Oesper Collection). PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jan_Baptist_van_Helmont.jpg
[1648 AD]
1604-1670), German chemist, finds that
hydrochloric acid can be formed by
sulfuric acid and common salt (sodium
chloride) and finds that the residue
sodium sulfate (also know as "sal
mirabile" and "Glauber's salt") works
as a laxative (makes defecation
easier).
Glauber also records a method for
forming nitric acid, from potassium
nitrate and sulfuric acid in 1648.
Glauber
prepares compounds of many metals known
at this time, for example an antimony
salt.
Glauber builds the largest chemistry
lab of the time in his house, at one
point employing 5 or 6 people.
Glauber prepares
acetone and benzene.
(presumably)
[1] Glauber, engraving PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Johann_Rudolf_Glauber.jpg
[2] Glauber, Furni novi philosophici :
sive Description artis destillatoriae
novae, 1651 PD
source: http://hdelboy.club.fr/chevreul_
hoefer_2.html
[05/19/1649 AD]
the replacement of the English monarchy
with first the Commonwealth of England
(1649-1653).
[1] Image from University of Texas
Libraries
http://utopia.utexas.edu/project/portrai
ts/cromwell.jpg in the public domain.
Original source for this picture:
Hundred Greatest Men, The. New York: D.
Appleton & Company, 1885. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Oliver_CromwellUT.jpg
[2] Description: Unfinished portrait
miniature of Oliver Cromwell by Samuel
Cooper. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Cooper%2C_Oliver_Cromwell.jpg
[1650 AD]
(rETcOlE) (CE 1598-1671), is the first
to observe a double (binary) star
system (Mizar in Ursa Major).
Riccioli calculates the earth's
acceleration due to gravity at 30 feet
(9.144 meters) per second per second
(close to the current value of 9.80665
meters per second per second accepted
today). (place chronologically)
Riccioli measures the parallax of the
Sun (from two points on earth?), and
calculates the distance at 24 million
miles {units} (the actual average
distance of the Sun from Earth is 150
million km, 93 million miles).
[1650 AD]
1601-1680), German Scholar produces a
vacuum (by using Guericke's method) to
prove that sound cannot be produced in
the absence of air.
[1] Cornelius Bloemart (1603-1680) -
Athanasius Kircher (1602-1680),
pictured in his book Mundus
Subterraneus, 1664 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Athanasius_Kircher.jpg
[2] non-expressive scan of out of
copyright (1636) image from Athanasius
Kircher's Prodromus Coptus, p. 283.
from
http://kircher.stanford.edu/gallery/ PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Kirchercopticalpha.jpg
[1650 AD]
1602-1686) constructs the first air
pump.
[1] Apparatus of Otto von Guerricke
with water receptacle at base
removed. PD/Corel
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=f2dMAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA239&dq=%22geissler+pu
mp%22#PPA238,M1
[2] Otto von Guericke PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Guericke.png
[1650 AD]
1623-1662) understands (Pascal's law)
that pressure applied to a confined
liquid is transmitted equally through
the liquid in all directions regardless
of the area to which the pressure is
applied. This is the basis of the
hydraulic press.
[1] Scientist: Pascal, Blaise (1623 -
1662) Discipline(s): Mathematics ;
Physics Print Artist: T. Dale
Medium: Engraving Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 14.4 x 8.1 cm /
Sheet: 27.8 x 21.3 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/cf/by_n
ame_display_results.cfm?scientist=Pascal
[2] Blaise Pascal source :
http://www.thocp.net/biographies/pascal_
blaise.html PD
source: %20Blaise
[1650 AD]
1628-1694) is one of the first people
to use a microscope to study animal and
vegetable structure.
[1] Description Marcello
Malphigi Source L C Miall. The
History of Biology. Watts and Co. Date
1911 Author L C Miall PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:MarcelloMalphigiMiall.jpg
[2] from http://wwwihm.nlm.nih.gov/
* 11:57, 27 August 2002 Magnus Manske
432x575 (78,604 bytes) (from
meta) Source Originally from
en.wikipedia; description page is (was)
here Date Commons upload by Magnus
Manske 10:03, 10 May 2006 (UTC) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Marcello_Malpighi_large.jpg
[1651 AD]
writings are published after his death
as "De Mundo Nostro Sublunari
Philosophia Nova" ("A New Philosophy of
Our Sublunar World").
Gilbert is the first to speculate on
what keeps the planets in their orbits
if the celestial spheres first invented
by Pythagoras do not exist, deciding
that magnetic attraction keeps the
planets in their orbits.
[1] Paiting of William Gilbert (1544 -
1603) Source
http://physics.ship.edu/~mrc/pfs/110/in
side_out/vu1/Galileo/Images/Port/gilbert
.gif Date Author Unknown, after
title page of De Magnete (1600) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:William_Gilbert.jpg
[1651 AD]
publishes "Exercitationes de
Generatione Animalium" (1651,
"Anatomical Exercitations Concerning
the Generation of Animals") in which
Harvey correctly supports the theory
that the embryo builds gradually from
its parts, as opposed to existing
complete and preformed in the ovum.
[1] William Harvey Library of
Congress PD
source: http://www.answers.com/William+H
arvey?cat=health
[2] William Harvey Source
University of Texas Libraries, The
University of Texas at Austin PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:William_Harvey.jpg
[1651 AD]
publishes "De generatione" (1651; "On
the Generation of Animals") which
describes the theory that an embryo
builds gradually from its parts,
instead of existing preformed in the
ovum.
[1] William Harvey Library of
Congress PD
source: http://www.answers.com/William+H
arvey?cat=health
[2] William Harvey Source
University of Texas Libraries, The
University of Texas at Austin PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:William_Harvey.jpg
[1651 AD]
(rETcOlE) (CE 1598-1671), publishes
"Almagestum novum" ("The New Almagest")
in which he names the craters on the
moon after astronomers.
[1] Riccioli, Almagestum novum (1651).
Lunar map. PD
source: http://hsci.cas.ou.edu/images/jp
g-100dpi-5in/17thCentury/Riccioli/1651/R
iccioli-1651-Moon.jpg
[2] G.B. Riccioli, Almagestum Novum
(1651). The image portrays Urania, the
muse of astronomy, weighing up the
rival systems of Copernicus, in which
the earth moves round the sun, and
Riccioli himself, in which the earth
remains stationary at the center of the
universe. The older system of Ptolemy
has already been discarded and lies on
the ground alongside. PD
source: http://microcosmos.uchicago.edu/
ptolemy/almagestum_novum_detail.html
[1652 AD]
1630-1702) identifies lymphatic
vessels.
.jpg)
[1] Portrait of the Swedish physician
and polyhistor Olaus Rudbeck (also
known as Olof Rudbeck, Olaus
Rudbeckius) the Elder (1630-1702).
Rudbeck was an anatomist, and one of
the discoverers of the lymphic vessels
in 1651-52 (discovered independently by
the Dane Thomas Bartholin at about the
same time), and was long professor of
Medicine at Uppsala University. He also
founded the earliest botanical garden
in Uppsala (later named after Carolus
Linnaeus) and initiated a major
botanical work with detailed
copperplate engravings, some of which
were printed but many of which were
destroyed in the Uppsala fire in 1702
before publication. He is also known as
an engineer and architect, who, among
other things, designed the anatomical
theatre in the Gustavianum building in
Uppsala, and as a speculative
historical writer who tried to prove
that Sweden was in fact the lost
Atlantis. Source First version:
This photograph was first uploaded as
Bild:Olof Rudbeck dä målad av Martin
Mijtens dä 1696.jpg to the Swedish
Wikipedia on 8 October 2003, 21.50 by
sv:Användare:Den fjättrade ankan and
then had the size 340x360 (11 386
bytes). Second version: less
cropped, fetched from [1] Date
1696 Author Martin Mijtens the
Elder (1548-1736), Dutch-Swedish
painter. A detail of this painting in
black and white is used to illustrate
the article on Rudbeck in Svenskt
biografiskt lexikon, vol. 30, p. 643.
It is discussed in the article on
Mijtens in SBL 25, p. 501. PD
source: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wik
i/Image:Olaus_Rudbeck_Sr_%28portrait_by_
Martin_Mijtens_Sr%2C_1696%29.jpg
[2] The archaeologist Olof Rudbeck
(1630 - 1702) reveals his
Predecessors'' Hesiod, Platon,
Aristoteles, Apollodor, Tacitus,
Odysseus, Ptolemäus, Plutarch and
Orpheus the Truth'' about Atlantis.
From Atland eller Manheim'', 1679-89.
PD
source: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wik
i/Image:Rudbeck_Atlantis.jpg
[1654 AD]
1623-1662) and Pierre de Fermat (FARmo)
(CE 1601-1665) through their
correspondence create the science of
probability.
[1] Scientist: Pascal, Blaise (1623 -
1662) Discipline(s): Mathematics ;
Physics Print Artist: T. Dale
Medium: Engraving Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 14.4 x 8.1 cm /
Sheet: 27.8 x 21.3 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/cf/by_n
ame_display_results.cfm?scientist=Pascal
[2] Blaise Pascal source :
http://www.thocp.net/biographies/pascal_
blaise.html PD
source: %20Blaise
[03/25/1655 AD]
identifies the first known moon of
Saturn, Titan.[18
(presumably)
[1] This natural color composite was
taken during the Cassini spacecraft's
April 16, 2005, flyby of Titan. It is a
combination of images taken through
three filters that are sensitive to
red, green and violet light. It
shows approximately what Titan would
look like to the human eye: a hazy
orange globe surrounded by a tenuous,
bluish haze. The orange color is due to
the hydrocarbon particles which make up
Titan's atmospheric haze. This
obscuring haze was particularly
frustrating for planetary scientists
following the NASA Voyager mission
encounters in 1980-81. Fortunately,
Cassini is able to pierce Titan's veil
at infrared wavelengths (see
PIA06228). North on Titan is up and
tilted 30 degrees to the right. The
images to create this composite were
taken with the Cassini spacecraft wide
angle camera on April 16, 2005, at
distances ranging from approximately
173,000 to 168,200 kilometers (107,500
to 104,500 miles) from Titan and from a
Sun-Titan-spacecraft, or phase, angle
of 56 degrees. Resolution in the images
is approximately 10 kilometers per
pixel. The Cassini-Huygens mission
is a cooperative project of NASA, the
European Space Agency and the Italian
Space Agency. The Jet Propulsion
Laboratory, a division of the
California Institute of Technology in
Pasadena, manages the mission for
NASA's Science Mission Directorate,
Washington, D.C. The Cassini orbiter
and its two onboard cameras were
designed, developed and assembled at
JPL. The imaging team is based at the
Space Science Institute, Boulder,
Colo. For more information about the
Cassini-Huygens mission, visit
http://saturn.jpl.nasa.gov and the
Cassini imaging team home page,
http://ciclops.org. Source *
http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/catalog
/PIA06230 (cropped and rotated from the
original) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Titan_in_natural_color_Cassini.jpg
[2] Christiaan Huygens, the
astronomer. source:
http://ressources2.techno.free.fr/inform
atique/sites/inventions/inventions.html
PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Christiaan_Huygens-painting.jpeg
[1655 AD]
extends exponents to include negative
numbers and fractions (for example
x-2=1/x2, and x1/2=sqrt(x)).
England
[1] John Wallis, English mathematician
with important contributions to
analysis. Source:
en:Image:John_Wallis.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:John_Wallis.jpg
[2] John Wallis, oil painting after a
portrait by Sir Godfrey Kneller; in the
National Portrait Gallery,
London Courtesy of the National
Portrait Gallery, London PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-15126/John-Wallis-oil-painting-after-a-
portrait-by-Sir-Godfrey?articleTypeId=1
[1656 AD]
1629-1695) invents the first pendulum
{PeNJUluM or PeNDUluM} clock.
(presumably)
[1] Reconstruction of the pioneer
pendulum clock designed by the Dutch
scientist, Christiaan Huygens
(1629-1693), in 1656. Huygens
commissioned the clockmaker Salomon
Coster of the Hague to make the clock
and a patent was issued in Coster's
name in 1657. It was described and
illustrated by Huygen in his book,
'Horologium' in 1658. Although Galileo
had suggested the use of a pendulum to
count the time, Huygen's design, where
the dial and hands of a clock were
controlled by a pendulum, was the first
truly practical pendulum clock. Huygens
attached a pendulum to the gears of a
clock. The regular swing of the
pendulum allowed the clock to achieve
greater accuracy, as the hands are
turned by the falling weight, which
releases the same amount of energy with
each tick. Side view. Image
number: 10239953 Credit:
Science Museum/Science & Society
Picture Library Date taken: 12
January 2004 13:57 Image rights:
Science Museum
source: http://www.sciencemuseum.org.uk/
images/I010/10239953.aspx
[2] Buy the rights or a
print COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemuseum.org.uk/
images/I022/10284689.aspx
[1657 AD]
creates the infinity symbol ∞.
[1] John Wallis, English mathematician
with important contributions to
analysis. Source:
en:Image:John_Wallis.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:John_Wallis.jpg
[2] John Wallis, oil painting after a
portrait by Sir Godfrey Kneller; in the
National Portrait Gallery,
London Courtesy of the National
Portrait Gallery, London PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-15126/John-Wallis-oil-painting-after-a-
portrait-by-Sir-Godfrey?articleTypeId=1
[1657 AD]
invents the spiral spring which he
calls the "circular pendulum".
[1] Hooke memorial window, St Helen's
Bishopsgate (now
destroyed) http://www.roberthooke.org.u
k/
on http://freespace.virgin.net/ric.mart
in/vectis/hookeweb/roberthooke.htm PD
source: http://freespace.virgin.net/ric.
martin/vectis/hookeweb/roberthooke.htm
.jpg)
[2] Frontispiece to Cyclopædia, 1728
edition View an enlarged 1000 x 811
pixel JPG image (271KB) the engraved
frontispiece to the 1728 edition of
Chambers' Cyclopedia shows as an
interesting detail a bust of Robert
Hooke.[3] [t there are busts of Newton
in the upper left, and a few on the
bottom
right] [Frontispiece] COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.she-philosopher.com/g
allery/cyclopaedia.html
[1658 AD]
1601-1680), proposes that disease is
caused by tiny living creatures.
Kircher also
proposes hygienic measures to prevent
the spread of disease.
[1] Cornelius Bloemart (1603-1680) -
Athanasius Kircher (1602-1680),
pictured in his book Mundus
Subterraneus, 1664 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Athanasius_Kircher.jpg
[1658 AD]
1637-1680) is the first to observe and
describe red blood cells.
(presumably)
[1659 AD]
1601-1665), French mathematician
independently of Descartes, Fermat
invents analytic geometry (which is
plotting points from a function on to a
graph).
Fermat uses three dimensional
coordinates (or triordinates) where
Descartes only uses two dimensional
coordinates.
Through correspondence, Fermat and
Blaise Pascal form the theory of
probability.
Fermat is famous for scribbling in the
margin of a book of Diofantos what is
called "Fermat's last theorem", that
the equation (xn + yn = zn for n>2) has
no solution for whole numbers, but that
there is no room for the simple proof
in the margin. This theorem will
remain unsolved until the late 1900s.
Fermat finds a summation process for
areas bounded by curves, that is
equivalent to the formula used in
modern integral calculus. (integration,
but not differentiation?)
[1] Fermat, portrait by Roland
Lefèvre; in the Narbonne City Museums,
France Courtesy of the Musees de la
Ville de Narbonne, France PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-10637/Fermat-portrait-by-Roland-Lefevre
-in-the-Narbonne-City-Museums?articleTyp
eId=1
[2] A portrait of Pierre de Fermat,
French lawyer and
mathematician. Source
http://www.mathe.tu-freiberg.de/~hebisc
h/cafe/fermat.html Date 17th century
A.D. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Pierre_de_Fermat.jpg
[1659 AD]
1628-1694) Malpighi is first to note
the lymph glands (or lymph nodes),
which Rudbeck will include as part of
the lymphatic system.
[1] Description Marcello
Malphigi Source L C Miall. The
History of Biology. Watts and Co. Date
1911 Author L C Miall PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:MarcelloMalphigiMiall.jpg
[2] from http://wwwihm.nlm.nih.gov/
* 11:57, 27 August 2002 Magnus Manske
432x575 (78,604 bytes) (from
meta) Source Originally from
en.wikipedia; description page is (was)
here Date Commons upload by Magnus
Manske 10:03, 10 May 2006 (UTC) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Marcello_Malpighi_large.jpg
[1659 AD]
is the first to note surface markings
on Mars.
(presumably)
[1] Sketch of Mars by Christiaan
Huygens This sketch, made in 1659, is
the first known recording of markings
on the surface of Mars. As is
traditional for sketches drawn based on
the view through a telescope, it is
inverted, with south at the top. PD
source: http://www.planetary.org/explore
/topics/timelines/timeline_to_1698.html
[2] Christiaan Huygens, the
astronomer. source:
http://ressources2.techno.free.fr/inform
atique/sites/inventions/inventions.html
PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Christiaan_Huygens-painting.jpeg
[11/28/1660 AD]
[1] The Fame of the Royal Society. From
Thomas Sprat's History of the Royal
Society In the Center is a bust of the
Society's Founder - Charles II Left is
William Brouncker- The first
President On the Right is Francis
Bacon the Inspiration of the Royal
Society PD
source: http://www.sirbacon.org/esquire.
html
[2] John Wallis, English mathematician
with important contributions to
analysis. Source:
en:Image:John_Wallis.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:John_Wallis.jpg
[1660 AD]
performs experiments sending
electricity through an evacuated
container and states that electrical
attraction is transmitted through empty
space (a vacuum).
(verify if electrical current can move
through empty space, Plucker stated
that it can't)
[1] Scientist: Boyle, Robert (1627 -
1691) Discipline(s): Chemistry ;
Physics Original Dimensions: Graphic:
13.1 x 8.2 cm / PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/cf/by_n
ame_display_results.cfm?scientist=Boyle
[2] Scientist: Boyle, Robert (1627
- 1691) Discipline(s): Chemistry ;
Physics Print Artist: George Vertue,
1684-1756 Medium: Engraving
Original Artist: Johann Kerseboom,
d.1708 Original Dimensions: Graphic:
39.5 x 24.3 cm / PD
source: %20Robert
[1661 AD]
recognizes acids, bases and neutral
liquids using acid-base indicators.
Boyle defines
an element as any substance that cannot
be broken down farther into another
substance.
[1] The Skeptical Chymist title
page PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:000a.jpg
[2] Scientist: Boyle, Robert (1627 -
1691) Discipline(s): Chemistry ;
Physics Original Dimensions: Graphic:
13.1 x 8.2 cm / PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/cf/by_n
ame_display_results.cfm?scientist=Boyle
[1661 AD]
1628-1694) observes the connection of
arteries and veins.
[1] Description Marcello
Malphigi Source L C Miall. The
History of Biology. Watts and Co. Date
1911 Author L C Miall PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:MarcelloMalphigiMiall.jpg
[2] from http://wwwihm.nlm.nih.gov/
* 11:57, 27 August 2002 Magnus Manske
432x575 (78,604 bytes) (from
meta) Source Originally from
en.wikipedia; description page is (was)
here Date Commons upload by Magnus
Manske 10:03, 10 May 2006 (UTC) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Marcello_Malpighi_large.jpg
[1661 AD]
1638-1686) discovers the duct of the
parotid gland (the salivary gland
located near the angle of the jaw),
(still called the duct of Steno).
In addition, Steno demonstrates the
existence of the pineal gland in
animals other than humans.
demonstrates the
existence of the pineal gland in
animals other than humans. René
Descartes had considered the pineal
gland the location of the soul, wrongly
believing that both were found only in
humans.
views fossils {as does his contemporary
Hooke} as ancient animals that had
lived normal lives and in death were
petrified.
[1] Niels Steensen (da) - Nicholas
Steno (1638 - 1686) var en pioner både
indenfor anatomi og geologi. - Danish
Scientist image from/fra J. P. Trap:
berømte danske mænd og kvinder,
1868 The portrait originated around
the time Steno died in the German city
Schwerin. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Niels_stensen.jpg
[2] Nicolaus Steno STAnO [t
accurate?] PD
source: http://www.nndb.com/people/070/0
00097776/
[1662 AD]
explains that the pressure and volume
of a gas are inversely related (Boyle's
Law).
[1] Scientist: Boyle, Robert (1627 -
1691) Discipline(s): Chemistry ;
Physics Original Dimensions: Graphic:
13.1 x 8.2 cm / PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/cf/by_n
ame_display_results.cfm?scientist=Boyle
[2] Scientist: Boyle, Robert (1627 -
1691) Discipline(s): Chemistry ;
Physics Print Artist: George Vertue,
1684-1756 Medium: Engraving
Original Artist: Johann Kerseboom,
d.1708 Original Dimensions: Graphic:
39.5 x 24.3 cm / PD
source: %20Robert
[1663 AD]
1602-1686) builds the first static
electricity generator by rotating a
sulfur globe against a cloth.
[1] Otto Guericke electrical device.
Footage is claimed to be PD old.
Picture was obtained from
http://www.corrosion-doctors.org/Biograp
hies/GuerickeBio.htm PD
source: http://www.answers.com/topic/gue
ricke-electricaldevice-png
[2] Otto von Guericke PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Guericke.png
[07/??/1664 AD]
measures the frequency of sound (that
is the pitch, the number of beats per
second).
Hooke measures two hundred seventy two
vibrations in one second of time as
being the note "G" (although this is
now recognized as C#).
Marin Mersenne was the first of record
to record a frequency for any sound by
1637, that of 84 cycles per second.
[1] Hooke memorial window, St Helen's
Bishopsgate (now
destroyed) http://www.roberthooke.org.u
k/
on http://freespace.virgin.net/ric.mart
in/vectis/hookeweb/roberthooke.htm PD
source: http://freespace.virgin.net/ric.
martin/vectis/hookeweb/roberthooke.htm
[2] Frontispiece to Cyclopædia, 1728
edition View an enlarged 1000 x 811
pixel JPG image (271KB) the engraved
frontispiece to the 1728 edition of
Chambers' Cyclopedia shows as an
interesting detail a bust of Robert
Hooke.[3] [t there are busts of Newton
in the upper left, and a few on the
bottom
right] [Frontispiece] COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.she-philosopher.com/g
allery/cyclopaedia.html
[11/23/1664 AD]
publishes "Micrographia", which
contains beautiful drawings of
microscopic observations.
Hooke is first to use the word "cells"
to describe the tiny rectangular holes
he identifies in a thin sliver of cork
viewed under a microscope.
Hooke suggests a transverse wave theory
of light with a transparent homogenius
medium, comparing the spreading of
light vibrations to that of waves in
water. Hooke's wave theory in
"Micrographia" (1665), and Francesco
Grimaldi's wave theory in
"Physico-mathesis de lumine, coloribus,
et iride" (1665; "Physicomathematical
Studies of Light, Colors, and the
Rainbow") are curiously both released
to the public in the same year and are
the earliest recorded wave theories for
light that I am aware of.
[1] The title page of Hooke's famous
'Micrographia', published in 1665. PD
source: http://freespace.virgin.net/ric.
martin/vectis/hookeweb/roberthooke.htm
[2] Suber cells and mimosa leaves.
Robert Hooke, Micrographia,
1665.[3] Robert Hooke's drawings of
the cellular structure of cork and a
sprig of sensitive plant from
Micrographia (1665). Oxford Science
Library/Heritage-Images [2] PD
source: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wik
i/Image:RobertHookeMicrographia1665.jpg
[1664 AD]
publishes "Cerebri Anatome, cui
accessit Nervorum descriptio et usus"
(1664; "Anatomy of the Brain, with a
Description of the Nerves and Their
Function"), the most complete and
accurate account of the nervous system
to this time.
Willis gives the first reliable
description of typhoid fever.
Willis is the
first to describe myasthenia gravis and
childbed fever, naming it "puerperal
fever" from Latin phrase for "child
bearing" (is?)
Willis recognizes (as earlier Greek
physicians may have known) the
(unusually high quantity of) sugar
content in urine among some people with
diabetes. (Perhaps this fact is
recognized from oral sex?)
[1] Scientist: Willis, Thomas (1621 -
1675) Discipline(s):
Medicine Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 15.8 x 9.6 cm / Sheet: 17.5 x
11 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=w
[2] Thomas Willis, engraving by G.
Vertue, 1742, after a portrait by D.
Loggan, c. 1666 Archiv fur Kunst und
Geschichte, Berlin PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-33103/Thomas-Willis-engraving-by-G-Vert
ue-1742-after-a-portrait?articleTypeId=1
[1665 AD]
(CE 1608-1679), proposes that comets
also move in elliptical orbits.
Borelli understands that a hollow
copper sphere is buoyant (in air) when
evacuated, but that it soon collapses
under air pressure. The Montgolfier
brothers will recognize in 150 years
that by putting in a lighter than air
gas, a sphere can be used as a balloon.
(place chronologically)
[1] Portrait of Giovanni Borelli from
this web site:
http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/optics/timel
ine/people/borelli.html The portrait
is made in 17th century. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:GBorelli.jpg
[2] Giovanni Alfonso Borelli. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Giovanni_Alfonso_Borelli.jpg
[1665 AD]
Grimaldi} {GREMoLDE} (CE 1618-1663)
theorizes that, in addition to the
properties of reflection, and
refraction, light has a new property he
calls "diffraction". Grimaldo observes
what he calls "diffraction" of light
through two narrow openings. This
double-slit experiment will be an
obstacle to the correct interpretation
of light as a particle that obeys the
law of gravity for 300 and counting
years. The more accurate and
surprisingly obvious interpretation of
light particles reflecting off the
sides of the slit will not be explored
until modern times, however humans
should keep open minds and explore as
many theories as possible.
Grimaldi creates a wave theory of
light. Robert Hooke in England
publishes a wave theory for light in
this year too. These two wave theories
for light are the earliest recorded
wave theories for light I am aware of.
This debate over light being a particle
or wave phenomenon will continue for
the next 350 years into the present
time.
[1] Physico-mathesis de lvmine,
coloribvs, et iride, aliisqve adnexis;
libri dvo ... Avctore Francisco Maria
Grimaldo. Bononiae, Ex Typographia
Haeredis V. Benatij; impensis H.
Berniae, 1665, [London, Dawsons, 1966]
Latin Light through two holes between
diffracts in the transmission, we see a
large widening that shows its stretched
out direction. (my own translation, and
needs correction) PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: Physico-mathesis de lvmine,
coloribvs, et iride, aliisqve adnexis;
libri dvo ... Avctore Francisco Maria
Grimaldo. Bononiae, Ex Typographia
Haeredis V. Benatij; impensis H.
Berniae, 1665, [London, Dawsons, 1966
Latin 9
[2] Francesco Maria Grimaldi (Bologna,
2 aprile 1618 - Bologna 28 dicembre
1663), astronomo e fisico italiano, in
un'incisione seicentesca. PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Franc
escomaria_Grimaldi.jpg
[1665 AD]
[1] Scientist: Cassini, Giovanni
Domenico (1625 - 1712) Discipline(s):
Astronomy ; Geodesy Print Artist: N.
Dupuis Medium: Engraving Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 14.3 x 10.2 cm /
Sheet: 24.6 x 16.2 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=c
[2] Scientist: Cassini, Giovanni
Domenico (1625 - 1712) Discipline(s):
Astronomy ; Geodesy Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 25.2 x 18.5 cm /
Sheet: 27.4 x 19.5 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=c
[1665 AD]
performs the first blood transfusion.
[1] Richard Lower PD
source: http://clendening.kumc.edu/dc/pc
/lower.jpg
[2] Richard Lower. PD
source: http://clendening.kumc.edu/dc/pc
/lower.jpg
[12/22/1666 AD]
(Académie des sciences) is founded.
[1] A celebratory engraving of the
activities of the Académie des
Sciences from 1698. Source:
http://www.princeton.edu/~his291/Jpegs/A
cademie.JPG PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Acad%C3%A9mie_des_Sciences_1698.jpg
[2] Louis XIV visiting the Académie
in 1671 An engraving by Sebastien Le
Clerc from Mémoires pour servir a
l'Histoire Naturelle des Animause
(Paris, 1671), depicting King Louis XIV
visting the Académie des
Sciences. Source:
http://www.phys.uu.nl/~huygens/images/ac
ademie_royale_paris.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Acad%C3%A9mie_des_Sciences_1671.jpg
[1666 AD]
1624-1689) is first to differentiate
scarlet fever from measles and names
"Scarlet fever". (place
chronologically)
Sydenham is the first to use a
derivative of opium, laudanum (alcohol
tincture of opium) to relieve pain and
induce rest.
Sydenham uses iron in the
treatment of anemia. (place
chronologically)
Sydenham popularizes the use of
cinchona (quinine) to treat malaria.
(effective?)
[1] Scientist: Sydenham, Thomas (1624
- 1689) Discipline(s):
Medicine Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 7.2 x 6.5 cm / Sheet: 17.5 x
7.9 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/by_n
ame_display_results.cfm?scientist=Sydenh
am
[2] Sydenham, detail of an oil
painting by Mary Beale, 1688; in the
National Portrait Gallery,
London Courtesy of the National
Portrait Gallery, London PD
source: %20Thomas
[1666 AD]
1628-1694) publishes "De viscerum
structura execitatio anatomica" (1666)
which gives a detailed and fairly
accurate account of the structure of
the liver, spleen, and kidney.
[1] Description Marcello
Malphigi Source L C Miall. The
History of Biology. Watts and Co. Date
1911 Author L C Miall PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:MarcelloMalphigiMiall.jpg
[2] from http://wwwihm.nlm.nih.gov/
* 11:57, 27 August 2002 Magnus Manske
432x575 (78,604 bytes) (from
meta) Source Originally from
en.wikipedia; description page is (was)
here Date Commons upload by Magnus
Manske 10:03, 10 May 2006 (UTC) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Marcello_Malpighi_large.jpg
[1666 AD]
1628-1694) publishes "De bombyce"
(1669), on the internal organs of the
silk-worm moth, which is the first
detailed account of the structure of an
invertebrate.
[1] Description Marcello
Malphigi Source L C Miall. The
History of Biology. Watts and Co. Date
1911 Author L C Miall PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:MarcelloMalphigiMiall.jpg
[2] from http://wwwihm.nlm.nih.gov/
* 11:57, 27 August 2002 Magnus Manske
432x575 (78,604 bytes) (from
meta) Source Originally from
en.wikipedia; description page is (was)
here Date Commons upload by Magnus
Manske 10:03, 10 May 2006 (UTC) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Marcello_Malpighi_large.jpg
[06/15/1667 AD]
1640-1704), French physician, performs
the firsthuman blood transfusion.
[1] Jean-Baptiste Denis PD
source: http://vietsciences.free.fr/lich
su/lichsutruyenmau.htm
[2] Starr's book opens with an account
of this early transfusion, illustrated
in a 1692 German medical textbook. The
physician, Jean-Baptiste Denis,
believed the lamb's blood -- rich in
gentle ''humors'' -- would pacify the
madman Antoine Mauroy. PD
source: http://www.bu.edu/bridge/archive
/1998/09-18/features7.html
[1667 AD]
1638-1686) publishes a short essay "The
Dissection of the Head of a Shark" at
the end of his "Elements of Myology".
This essay marks the beginning of the
science of paleontology.
[1] Steno's shark teeth from
Elementorum myologiæ specimen, seu
musculi descriptio geometrica : cui
accedunt Canis Carchariæ dissectum
caput, et dissectus piscis ex Canum
genere Source
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/history/im
ages/stenoshark.jpg Date 1667 Author
Niels Stensen (Steno) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Stenoshark.jpg
[2] none PD
source: http://epswww.unm.edu/facstaff/z
sharp/106/lecture%202%20steno.htm
[1667 AD]
first to study a "convergent series", a
series with an infinite number of
members but has a finite sum.
[1] Portrait of the Astronomer James
Gregory. Description James
Gregory Source
http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~his
tory/PictDisplay/Gregory.html Date
? Author ? Permission
http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~his
tory/Miscellaneous/Copyright.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:James_Gregory.jpeg
[2] Gregorian reflecting telescope
(1663) Long before the technology
existed to make it, James Gregory
envisioned a telescope with a parabolic
primary mirror. The telescope''s
images would have been free of both
chromatic and spherical aberration. By
using a mirror, rather than a lens,
Gregory eliminated chromatic
aberration. The mirror's shape was
parabolic, not spherical, eliminating
spherical aberration. COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://amazing-space.stsci.edu/r
esources/explorations/groundup/lesson/ba
sics/g10b/index.php
[1668 AD]
1625-1712) establishes Jupiter's period
of rotation as nine hours fifty-six
minutes.
Bologna), Italy
[1] Description: Gemälde Giovanni
Domenico Cassini Source::
http://www-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk/hist
ory/PictDisplay/Cassini.html
Painter: Durangel 1879, nach einer
alten Radierung, welche wiederum nach
einem alten Bild von Madame Milon de
a PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d6/Giovanni_Cassini.jpg
[2] Scientist: Cassini, Giovanni
Domenico (1625 - 1712) Discipline(s):
Astronomy ; Geodesy Print Artist: N.
Dupuis Medium: Engraving Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 14.3 x 10.2 cm /
Sheet: 24.6 x 16.2 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=c
[1668 AD]
1626-1697) disproves "spontaneous
regeneration" of flies from meat.
[1] Scientist: Redi, Francesco (1626 -
1698) Discipline(s): Medicine Print
Artist: Lodovico Pelli, 1814-1876
Medium: Engraving Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 11 x 11 cm /
Sheet: 19.2 x 14.3 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/by_d
iscipline_display_results.cfm?Research_D
iscipline_1=Medicine
[2] Francesco Redi Esperienze intorno
alla generazione degl'insetti fatte da
Francesco Redi ... e da lvi scritte in
vna lettera all'illvstrissimo Signor
Carlo Dati.. Firenze, All'insegna
della Stella, 1668. 3 p. l., 228 p.
illus., plates (part fold.) 24
cm. Call no.: QL496.R35 1668 PD
source: http://www.library.umass.edu/spc
oll/exhibits/herbal/redi.htm
[1668 AD]
builds the first reflecting telescope
that can compete with a refracting
telescope, and the first with a second
mirror angeled at 45 degrees to send
the image to the side of the telescope.
[1] Presumably Newton's first
reflecting telescope COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.newton.cam.ac.uk/newt
on.html
[2] Description Isaac Newton Date
1689 Author Godfrey Kneller PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:GodfreyKneller-IsaacNewton-1689.jpg
[07/??/1669 AD]
invents calculus, a system of
calculating, using two main tools:
differentiation and integration.
Differentiation (differential calculus)
determines the rate of change of an
equation, and integration (integral
calculus) uses the summation of
infinitely many small pieces to
determine the length, area or volume
described by an equation.
[1] Description Isaac Newton Date
1689 Author Godfrey Kneller PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:GodfreyKneller-IsaacNewton-1689.jpg
[2] Sir Isaac Newton Description
National Portrait Gallery
London Source
http://www.nd.edu/~dharley/HistIdeas/Ne
wton.html (not actual); first uploaded
in German Wikipedia by Dr. Manuel Date
26. Jan. 2005 (orig. upload) Author
Godfrey Kneller (1702) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Isaac_Newton.jpeg
[1669 AD]
[1] 1693-1698 Bartholin, Rasmus (1625-
4/11 1698) Universitetsprofessor,
læge, matematiker, fysiker, Valgt
25/1 1693 som den ældste Senium in
Academia Læs om ham i Dansk
Biografisk Lexicon PD
source: http://kilder.rundetaarn.dk/biog
rafisketavler/bibliotekarer.htm
[2] 1625 Rasmus
Bartholin PD
source: http://www.roskildehistorie.dk/1
600/billeder/personer/Bartholin/Bartholi
n.htm
[1669 AD]
identifies phosphorus which is the
first known element.
[1] The Alchemist in Search of the
Philosophers Stone (1771) by Joseph
Wright depicting Hennig Brand
discovering phosphorus (the glow shown
is exaggerated) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Henning_brand.jpg
[2] A retort. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:My_retort.jpg
[1669 AD]
1637-1680) publishes "Historia
Insectorum Generalis" ("A General
History of Insects").
(presumably)
[1] Jan Swammerdam Historia insectorum
generalis, ofte, Algemeene verhandeling
van de bloedeloose dierkens : waar in,
de waaragtige gronden van haare
langsaame aangroeingen in leedemaaten,
klaarelijk werden voorgestelt :
kragtiglijk, van de gemeene dwaaling
der vervorming, anders metamorphosis
genoemt, gesuyvert : ende beknoptelijk,
in vier onderscheide orderen van
veranderingen, ofte natuurelijke
uytbottingen in leeden,
begreepen t'Utrrecht : By Meinardus
van Dreunen ..., 1669. [28], 168, 48
p., XIII, [1] leaves of plates (some
folded) : ill. (engravings) ; 21 cm.
(4to) Call no.: QL463.S8 1669 PD
source: http://www.library.umass.edu/spc
oll/exhibits/herbal/29.jpg
[2] The SCUA copy of Historia
insectorum generalis includes a scarce
additional plate depicting a mosquito
as seen under magnification. title
page metamorphosis of insects ''The
manner in which worms and caterpillars
change into pupae.'' scorpion
Scorpion mosquito Additional plate
depicting a mosquito PD
source: http://www.library.umass.edu/spc
oll/exhibits/herbal/28.jpg
[1669 AD]
1638-1686) published his geological
observations in "De solido intra
solidum naturaliter contento
dissertationis prodromus" ("The
Prodromus of Nicolaus Steno's
Dissertation Concerning a Solid Body
Enclosed by Process of Nature Within a
Solid").
[1] none PD
source: http://epswww.unm.edu/facstaff/z
sharp/106/lecture%202%20steno.htm
[2] Niels Steensen (da) - Nicholas
Steno (1638 - 1686) var en pioner både
indenfor anatomi og geologi. - Danish
Scientist image from/fra J. P. Trap:
berømte danske mænd og kvinder,
1868 The portrait originated around
the time Steno died in the German city
Schwerin. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Niels_stensen.jpg
[1671 AD]
the first to describe myasthenia gravis
in 1671, a chronic muscular fatigue
marked by progressive paralysis, and
puerperal (childbed) fever, which he
names.
[1] Scientist: Willis, Thomas (1621 -
1675) Discipline(s):
Medicine Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 15.8 x 9.6 cm / Sheet: 17.5 x
11 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=w
[2] Thomas Willis, engraving by G.
Vertue, 1742, after a portrait by D.
Loggan, c. 1666 Archiv fur Kunst und
Geschichte, Berlin PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-33103/Thomas-Willis-engraving-by-G-Vert
ue-1742-after-a-portrait?articleTypeId=1
[1671 AD]
identified.
[1] Approximately natural color mosaic
of Iapetus taken on December 31, 2004
at a distance of about 173 000 km and
phase angle of 52 degrees. The mosaic
consists of two footprints which were
the only ones where multispectral
coverage exists at this point in the
flyby. The missing portions for
full-disk coverage were filled in with
three clear filter frames which were
colorized. The view is dominated by
the dark Cassini Regio. Brighter
terrain is visible high on Iapetus'
northern latitudes. Hints of much
brighter terrain can also be seen at
the limb at approx. 7 o'clock position
where slight camera saturation
occured. Two huge and ancient impact
basins are visible as well as a
mysterious mountain range running
precisely along the equator. North pole
is approximately at 1 o'clock position
and is in darkness here. Credit: NASA
/ JPL / SSI / Gordan Ugarkovic [t
looks very like a terrestrial with
meteor impacts, might this have been
orbiting the Sun? or absorbs impacts
around Saturn? If around the Sun and
then fell back to Saturn that might be
important. It's a classic question of
moon form around planets or only around
stars.] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Iapetus_mosaic_color.jpg
[2] Scientist: Cassini, Giovanni
Domenico (1625 - 1712) Discipline(s):
Astronomy ; Geodesy Print Artist: N.
Dupuis Medium: Engraving Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 14.3 x 10.2 cm /
Sheet: 24.6 x 16.2 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=c
[1671 AD]
(LIPniTS) (CE 1646-1716), constructs a
calculating machine that can add,
subtract, multiply and divide.
[1] Description Deutsch: Gottfried
Wilhelm Leibniz (Gemälde von Bernhard
Christoph Francke, Braunschweig,
Herzog-Anton-Ulrich-Museum, um
1700) Source
http://www.hfac.uh.edu/gbrown/philosoph
ers/leibniz/BritannicaPages/Leibniz/Leib
nizGif.html Date ca. 1700 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Gottfried_Wilhelm_von_Leibniz.jpg
[2] Source:
http://www.daviddarling.info/encyclopedi
a/L/Leibniz.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Leibniz_231.jpg
[1671 AD]
describes the reaction between iron
filings and dilute acids that results
in the release of gaseous hydrogen
(which Boyle describes as an)
("inflammable solution of Mars"
{iron}).
[1] Scientist: Boyle, Robert (1627 -
1691) Discipline(s): Chemistry ;
Physics Original Dimensions: Graphic:
13.1 x 8.2 cm / PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/cf/by_n
ame_display_results.cfm?scientist=Boyle
[2] Scientist: Boyle, Robert (1627 -
1691) Discipline(s): Chemistry ;
Physics Print Artist: George Vertue,
1684-1756 Medium: Engraving
Original Artist: Johann Kerseboom,
d.1708 Original Dimensions: Graphic:
39.5 x 24.3 cm / PD
source: %20Robert
[02/19/1672 AD]
particle is revived. Color determined
to be a property of light, not of
objects. Glass prism. White light
separated into and recreated from
primary colors. Light of different
colors shown to refract at different
angles.
Isaac Newton (CE 1643-1727) theorizes
that light may be "...globular
bodies...".
[1] Isaac Newton, ''Draft of 'A Theory
Concerning Light and Colors''', Feb 6,
1671/2, in English, c. 5,137 words,
14pp. Shelfmark: MS Add. 3970.3,
ff.460-466 Location: Cambridge
University Library, Cambridge,
UK http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.u
k/view/texts/normalized/NATP00003 PD
source: http://www.newtonproject.sussex.
ac.uk/view/texts/normalized/NATP00003
[2] Description Isaac Newton Date
1689 Author Godfrey Kneller PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:GodfreyKneller-IsaacNewton-1689.jpg
[1672 AD]
English physician publishes the
earliest English work on so-called
mental disease, "De Anima Brutorum"
("Discourses Concerning the Souls of
Brutes"), which reveals a violent
brutal side to Willis and the people of
this time. As the title implies people
labeled with mental disorders are
viewed as "brutes". In this book
describes so-called "insane" people as
having super human strength, and
advocates violence as a useful
treatment, writing: "Discipline,
threats, fetters, blows are needed as
much as medical treatment...".
[1] Willis, Thomas, 1621-1675 De anima
brutorum quae hominis vitalis ac
sentitiva est : exercitationes duae /
studio Thomae Willis M.D.
Publisher Londini : Typis E.F.
impensis Ric. Davis, Oxon, 1672. PD
source: http://www.library.usyd.edu.au/l
ibraries/rare/medicine/WillisAnima1672.j
pg
[2] Thomas Willis British Anatomist
PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Thomas_Willis.jpg
[1672 AD]
identified.
[1] 2005-12-06 Rhea
mission:Cassini Imaging Science
Subsystem - Narrow
Angle 4500x4500x1 Rhea: Full Moon
PIA07763: Full Resolution: TIFF
(20.29 MB) JPEG (2.354 MB) PD
source: http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov
/target/Rhea?start=50
[2] Ancient Craters on Saturn's
Rhea Credit: Cassini Imaging Team,
SSI, JPL, ESA, NASA Explanation:
Saturn's ragged moon Rhea has one of
the oldest surfaces known. Estimated as
changing little in the past billion
years, Rhea shows craters so old they
no longer appear round - their edges
have become compromised by more recent
cratering. Like Earth's Moon, Rhea's
rotation is locked on Saturn, and the
above image shows part of Rhea's
surface that always faces Saturn.
Rhea's leading surface is more highly
cratered than its trailing surface.
Rhea is composed mostly of water-ice
but is thought to have a small rocky
core. The above image was taken by the
robot Cassini spacecraft now orbiting
Saturn. Cassini swooped past Rhea two
months ago and captured the above image
from about 100,000 kilometers away.
Rhea spans 1,500 kilometers making it
Saturn's second largest moon after
Titan. Several surface features on Rhea
remain unexplained including large
light patches. PD
source: http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/ap0605
30.html
[1672 AD]
measured.
America
[1] Scientist: Cassini, Giovanni
Domenico (1625 - 1712) Discipline(s):
Astronomy ; Geodesy Print Artist: N.
Dupuis Medium: Engraving Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 14.3 x 10.2 cm /
Sheet: 24.6 x 16.2 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=c
[2] Scientist: Cassini, Giovanni
Domenico (1625 - 1712) Discipline(s):
Astronomy ; Geodesy Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 25.2 x 18.5 cm /
Sheet: 27.4 x 19.5 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=c
[1672 AD]
1628-1694) sends the Royal Society "De
formatione pulli in ovo" (1672).
[1] Description Marcello
Malphigi Source L C Miall. The
History of Biology. Watts and Co. Date
1911 Author L C Miall PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:MarcelloMalphigiMiall.jpg
[2] from http://wwwihm.nlm.nih.gov/
* 11:57, 27 August 2002 Magnus Manske
432x575 (78,604 bytes) (from
meta) Source Originally from
en.wikipedia; description page is (was)
here Date Commons upload by Magnus
Manske 10:03, 10 May 2006 (UTC) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Marcello_Malpighi_large.jpg
[1673 AD]
publishes "Horologium oscillatorium".
[1] Huygens, Horologium oscillatorium,
1673. PD
source: http://kinematic.library.cornell
.edu:8190/kmoddl/toc_huygens1.html
[2]
http://www.kanazawa-it.ac.jp/dawn/167301
.html Huygens, Christiaan.
(1629-1695). Horologium
Oscillatorium,,,. Parisiis, 1673,
First edition. PD
source: http://www.kanazawa-it.ac.jp/daw
n/photo/167301.jpg
[1673 AD]
is the first to describe the follicles
of the ovary, but does not understand
that the follicle contains the oocyte
or ovum cell.
[1] Regnier de Graaf, Dutch
anatomist. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Regnier_de_graaf.jpeg
[2] Regnier de Graaf the Graafian
follicles and female ejaculation, PD
source: http://www2.hu-berlin.de/sexolog
y/GESUND/ARCHIV/GIF/XA_GRAAF.JPG
[09/07/1674 AD]
1632-1723) is the first to observe
protists.
[1] Description w:Antoni van
Leeuwenhoek Source Project Gutenberg
ebook of Den Waaragtigen Omloop des
Bloeds http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/1
8929 http://www.gutenberg.org/files/189
29/18929-h/18929-h.htm Date
1686 Author J. Verkolje PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Antoni_van_Leeuwenhoek.png
[2] Leeuwenhoek Antonie van
Leeuwenhoek, detail of a portrait by
Jan Verkolje; in the Rijksmuseum,
Amsterdam.[2] COPYRIGHTED photo but
PD painting
source: http://www.abdn.ac.uk/mediarelea
ses/release.php?id=197
[1674 AD]
the concept of "species" in terms of
structural qualities.
[1] John Ray From Shuster & Shipley,
facing p. 232. In turn from an original
portrait, by a painter not identified,
in (1917) the British Museum. PD
source: http://www.marcdatabase.com/~lem
ur/lemur.com/gallery-of-antiquarian-tech
nology/worthies/
[1674 AD]
identifies "spiritus nitroaereus"
(oxygen) as a distinct atmospheric
entity, about 100 years before Joseph
Priestley and Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier
will identify it.
[1] John Mayow PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:John_Mayow.jpg
[2] John Mayow, 1641-1679. Tractatus
quinque medico-physici. [Five
medico-physical tracts] Oxford: E
Theatro Sheldoniano, 1674. Gift of
John F. Fulton. PD
source: http://www.med.yale.edu/library/
historical/founders/images/tractatus.jpg
[1674 AD]
notices that colors are produced by
light reflected from small scratches
made in metal. This will lead to the
diffraction gratings.
[1675 AD]
seen.
[1] What's That Speck? Cassini's climb
to progressively higher elevations
reveals the ''negative'' side of
Saturn's rings. As the Sun shines
through the rings, they take on the
appearance of a photonegative: the
dense B ring (at the center) blocks
much of the incoming light, while the
less dense regions scatter and transmit
light. Close inspection reveals not
one, but two moons in this scene. Mimas
(397 kilometers, or 247 miles across)
is easily visible near the upper right,
but the shepherd moon Prometheus (102
kilometers, or 63 miles across) can
also be seen. Prometheus is a dark spot
against the far side of the thin,
bright F ring. Most of Prometheus'
sunlit side is turned away from Cassini
in this view. The image was taken in
visible light with the Cassini
spacecraft wide-angle camera on April
15, 2005, at a distance of
approximately 570,000 kilometers
(350,000 miles) from Saturn. The image
scale is 30 kilometers (19 miles) per
pixel. The Cassini-Huygens mission
is a cooperative project of NASA, the
European Space Agency and the Italian
Space Agency. The Jet Propulsion
Laboratory, a division of the
California Institute of Technology in
Pasadena, manages the mission for
NASA's Science Mission Directorate,
Washington, D.C. The Cassini orbiter
and its two onboard cameras were
designed, developed and assembled at
JPL. The imaging team is based at the
Space Science Institute, Boulder,
Colo. For more information about the
Cassini-Huygens mission visit
http://saturn.jpl.nasa.gov . For
additional images visit the Cassini
imaging team homepage
http://ciclops.org . Image Credit:
NASA/JPL/Space Science Institute PD
source: http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/mult
imedia/display.cfm?IM_ID=3943
[2] Scientist: Cassini, Giovanni
Domenico (1625 - 1712) Discipline(s):
Astronomy ; Geodesy Print Artist: N.
Dupuis Medium: Engraving Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 14.3 x 10.2 cm /
Sheet: 24.6 x 16.2 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=c
[1675 AD]
describes "Newton's rings", concentric
colored rings in the thin film of air
between a lens and a flat sheet of
glass, the distance between these
concentric rings (Newton's rings)
depends on the increasing thickness of
the film of air between the lens and
glass.
[1] Description Isaac Newton Date
1689 Author Godfrey Kneller PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:GodfreyKneller-IsaacNewton-1689.jpg
[2] Sir Isaac Newton Description
National Portrait Gallery
London Source
http://www.nd.edu/~dharley/HistIdeas/Ne
wton.html (not actual); first uploaded
in German Wikipedia by Dr. Manuel Date
26. Jan. 2005 (orig. upload) Author
Godfrey Kneller (1702) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Isaac_Newton.jpeg
[1675 AD]
is founded.
[1] John Flamsteed. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:John_Flamsteed.jpg
[2] Bust of John Flamsteed in the
Museum of the Royal Greenwich
Observatory, London PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:John_Flamsteed_Royal_Greenwich_Observ
atory_Museum.jpg
[10/09/1676 AD]
1632-1723) is the first to observe
bacteria.
[1] Description w:Antoni van
Leeuwenhoek Source Project Gutenberg
ebook of Den Waaragtigen Omloop des
Bloeds http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/1
8929 http://www.gutenberg.org/files/189
29/18929-h/18929-h.htm Date
1686 Author J. Verkolje PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Antoni_van_Leeuwenhoek.png
[2] Leeuwenhoek Antonie van
Leeuwenhoek, detail of a portrait by
Jan Verkolje; in the Rijksmuseum,
Amsterdam.[2] COPYRIGHTED photo but
PD painting
source: http://www.abdn.ac.uk/mediarelea
ses/release.php?id=197
[1676 AD]
1620-1684) independently of Boyle
identifies that the volume of a gas
varies inversely with its pressure, and
goes further than Boyle by saying that
this is true only if there is no change
in temperature.
[1] Edme Mariotte PD?
source: http://www.nndb.com/people/112/0
00095824/
[1676 AD]
1624-1689) writes "Observationes
Medicae" (1676), a standard textbook
for two centuries.
[1] Scientist: Sydenham, Thomas (1624
- 1689) Discipline(s):
Medicine Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 7.2 x 6.5 cm / Sheet: 17.5 x
7.9 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/by_n
ame_display_results.cfm?scientist=Sydenh
am
[2] Sydenham, detail of an oil
painting by Mary Beale, 1688; in the
National Portrait Gallery,
London Courtesy of the National
Portrait Gallery, London PD
source: %20Thomas
[1676 AD]
publishes "Ornithologia" (1676) which
contains 230 species of birds.
[1] John Ray From Shuster & Shipley,
facing p. 232. In turn from an original
portrait, by a painter not identified,
in (1917) the British Museum. PD
source: http://www.marcdatabase.com/~lem
ur/lemur.com/gallery-of-antiquarian-tech
nology/worthies/
[1676 AD]
publishes "Historia piscium" (1686)
which classifies species of fishes.
[1] John Ray From Shuster & Shipley,
facing p. 232. In turn from an original
portrait, by a painter not identified,
in (1917) the British Museum. PD
source: http://www.marcdatabase.com/~lem
ur/lemur.com/gallery-of-antiquarian-tech
nology/worthies/
[1676 AD]
distinguishes between monocotyledons
and dicotyledons, plants whose seeds
germinate with one leaf and those with
two.
[1] John Ray From Shuster & Shipley,
facing p. 232. In turn from an original
portrait, by a painter not identified,
in (1917) the British Museum. PD
source: http://www.marcdatabase.com/~lem
ur/lemur.com/gallery-of-antiquarian-tech
nology/worthies/
[1676 AD]
light.
Ole (or Olaus) Rømer (ROEmR) (CE
1644-1710) calculates the speed of
light from the changing time of the
entering and exiting of the moons of
Jupiter into and out of the shadow of
Jupiter.[19
[1] ''Demonstration touchant le
mouvement de la lumiere trouvé par M.
Römer de l' Academie Royale des
Sciences'', Journal des sçavans,
December 7,
1676 http://books.google.com/books?id=5
scUAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA484 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=5scUAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA484
[2] Ole Rømer PD
source: http://www.rundetaarn.dk/dansk/o
bservatorium/grafik/roemer1.jpg
[1677 AD]
(CE 1632-1723) is the first to describe
spermatozoa.
[1] Spermatozoa (Dutch =
''zaaddiertjes'') after an image
published in Phil.Trans. XII,nov. 1678)
: 1-4 Human, 5-8 Dog. PD
source: http://www.euronet.nl/users/warn
ar/leeuwenhoek.html
[2] Description w:Antoni van
Leeuwenhoek Source Project Gutenberg
ebook of Den Waaragtigen Omloop des
Bloeds http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/1
8929 http://www.gutenberg.org/files/189
29/18929-h/18929-h.htm Date
1686 Author J. Verkolje PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Antoni_van_Leeuwenhoek.png
[1678 AD]
1629-1695) presents his "Traité de la
lumière" ("Treatise on Light") which
puts forward a theory of light as a
longitudinal wave like sound.
Huygens is the first to describe
polarization of light.
[1] Christiaan Huygens, the
astronomer. source:
http://ressources2.techno.free.fr/inform
atique/sites/inventions/inventions.html
PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Christiaan_Huygens-painting.jpeg
[2] Christiaan Huygens Library of
Congress PD
source: http://www.answers.com/Christiaa
n+Huygens?cat=technology
[1678 AD]
describes "Hooke's Law", that the force
that restores a spring (or any elastic
system) to its equilibrium position is
proportional to the distance by which
it is displaced from that equilibrium
position.
[1] Hooke memorial window, St Helen's
Bishopsgate (now
destroyed) http://www.roberthooke.org.u
k/
on http://freespace.virgin.net/ric.mart
in/vectis/hookeweb/roberthooke.htm PD
source: http://freespace.virgin.net/ric.
martin/vectis/hookeweb/roberthooke.htm
[2] Frontispiece to Cyclopædia, 1728
edition View an enlarged 1000 x 811
pixel JPG image (271KB) the engraved
frontispiece to the 1728 edition of
Chambers' Cyclopedia shows as an
interesting detail a bust of Robert
Hooke.[3] [t there are busts of Newton
in the upper left, and a few on the
bottom
right] [Frontispiece] COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.she-philosopher.com/g
allery/cyclopaedia.html
[1678 AD]
publishes the first catalog of
telescopically located stars seen only
from the southern hemisphere.
[1] Portrait of Edmond Halley painted
around 1687 by Thomas Murray (Royal
Society, London) uploaded from
http://www.phys.uu.nl/~vgent/astrology/n
ewton.htm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Edmund_Halley.gif
[2] Portrait of Edmond Halley PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Edmond_Halley_5.jpg
[1678 AD]
engine design.
[1678 AD]
writing). Human contracts muscle with
electricity.
Muscle is contracted using two
different metals. This is the first
published account of direct neuron
writing.
(presumably)
[1] One of Galvani’s decisive
experiments was to show that movement
could be induced by stroking an iron
plate against a brass hook inserted
into the frog’s spinal column, which
generated a small electric current. In
one version of Swammerdam’s nerve
muscle experiment, the nerve was
suspended in a brass hook, which was
then stroked with a silver
wire: PD/Corel
source: http://www.janswammerdam.net/Ima
ges/Fig4.jpg
[05/27/1679 AD]
passed by the Parliament of England (31
Cha. 2 c. 2) during the reign of King
Charles II to define and strengthen the
ancient writ of habeas corpus, whereby
persons unlawfully detained can be
ordered to be prosecuted before a court
of law.
[1679 AD]
1628-1694) publishes "Anatome
plantarum" (part 1: 1675, part 2:
1679).
England)
[1] Anatome plantarum y De ovo incubato
PD
source: http://www.unav.es/biblioteca/im
agenes/hufa-anatome-plantarum.jpg
[2] Malpighi, Anatomia plantarum,
1675, fol. PD
source: http://gbamici.sns.it/img/ednaz/
malpighi.jpg
[1679 AD]
1647-1712) builds the first pressure
cooker which reawakens work with
steam.
Papin also suggests the first cylinder
and piston steam engine.
[1] subject: Denis Papin, unknown
artist, 1689. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Denis_Papin.jpg
[2]
http://www.chemistryexplained.com/Bo-Ce/
Boyle-Robert.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Boyle-Papin-Digester.jpg
[1680 AD]
(CE 1608-1679), correctly explains
muscular action and the movements of
bones in terms of levers.
[1] Portrait of Giovanni Borelli from
this web site:
http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/optics/timel
ine/people/borelli.html The portrait
is made in 17th century. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:GBorelli.jpg
[2] Giovanni Alfonso Borelli. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Giovanni_Alfonso_Borelli.jpg
[1680 AD]
1627-1691) discovers that phosphorus
and sulfur burst into flame instantly
if rubbed together. This is the basis
of the match.
[1] Scientist: Boyle, Robert (1627 -
1691) Discipline(s): Chemistry ;
Physics Original Dimensions: Graphic:
13.1 x 8.2 cm / PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/cf/by_n
ame_display_results.cfm?scientist=Boyle
[2] Scientist: Boyle, Robert (1627 -
1691) Discipline(s): Chemistry ;
Physics Print Artist: George Vertue,
1684-1756 Medium: Engraving
Original Artist: Johann Kerseboom,
d.1708 Original Dimensions: Graphic:
39.5 x 24.3 cm / PD
source: %20Robert
[1680 AD]
(combustion) vacuum engine.
[1] Christiaan Huygens, the
astronomer. source:
http://ressources2.techno.free.fr/inform
atique/sites/inventions/inventions.html
PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Christiaan_Huygens-painting.jpeg
[2] Christiaan Huygens Library of
Congress PD
source: http://www.answers.com/Christiaa
n+Huygens?cat=technology
[03/03/1682 AD]
(CE 1632-1723) describes the first cell
nucleus.
[1] Description w:Antoni van
Leeuwenhoek Source Project Gutenberg
ebook of Den Waaragtigen Omloop des
Bloeds http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/1
8929 http://www.gutenberg.org/files/189
29/18929-h/18929-h.htm Date
1686 Author J. Verkolje PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Antoni_van_Leeuwenhoek.png
[2] Leeuwenhoek Antonie van
Leeuwenhoek, detail of a portrait by
Jan Verkolje; in the Rijksmuseum,
Amsterdam.[2] COPYRIGHTED photo but
PD painting
source: http://www.abdn.ac.uk/mediarelea
ses/release.php?id=197
[1682 AD]
identifies the sex organs of plants,
the pistils (female) and stamens (male)
with a microscope.
Grew also understands how grains of
pollen produced by the stamens are the
equivalent to sperm cells in the animal
world.
[1] Title Page of ''The Anatomy of
Plants'' PD
source: http://www.wsulibs.wsu.edu/holla
nd/masc/masctour/earlyprinting/images/50
.jpg
[2] Vine-Root Cut Transversely PD
source: http://www.wsulibs.wsu.edu/holla
nd/masc/masctour/earlyprinting/images/51
.jpg
[09/12/1683 AD]
(CE 1632-1723) draws the first picture
of bacteria.
[1] Fig. 7. Bacteria from a human
mouth, letter of 17 September 1683. A
is a motile Bacillus, B is Selenomonas
sputigena, with C D its path, E is
Micrococci, F is Leptothrix buccalis,
and G is a spirochaete, probably
Spirochaeta buccalis (Dobell 1932:Plate
24 or Leeuwenhoek 1939-1999, IV:Plate
8). COPYRIGHTED?
source: http://esapubs.org/bulletin/back
issues/087-1/bulletin_jan2006.htm
[2] Description w:Antoni van
Leeuwenhoek Source Project Gutenberg
ebook of Den Waaragtigen Omloop des
Bloeds http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/1
8929 http://www.gutenberg.org/files/189
29/18929-h/18929-h.htm Date
1686 Author J. Verkolje PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Antoni_van_Leeuwenhoek.png
[1683 AD]
Cassini (Ko SEnE) (French:) Jean
Dominique Cassini (KoSE nE) (CE
1625-1712) is the first to study
"zodiacal light", a faint illumination
of the night sky stretching from the
sun along the line of the ecliptic (the
orbit of the planets), which Swiss
mathematician Nicolas Fatio de Duillier
(CE 1664-1753) will correctly explain
as dust particles in interplanetary
space.
[1] Scientist: Cassini, Giovanni
Domenico (1625 - 1712) Discipline(s):
Astronomy ; Geodesy Print Artist: N.
Dupuis Medium: Engraving Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 14.3 x 10.2 cm /
Sheet: 24.6 x 16.2 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=c
[2] Scientist: Cassini, Giovanni
Domenico (1625 - 1712) Discipline(s):
Astronomy ; Geodesy Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 25.2 x 18.5 cm /
Sheet: 27.4 x 19.5 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=c
[10/??/1684 AD]
(LIPniTS) (CE 1646-1716) publishes a
system of differential and integral
calculus. This form of calculus is the
one used today (as opposed to Newton's
"fluxions") (uses integral symbol?).
in) Hannover, Germany
[1] Description Deutsch: Gottfried
Wilhelm Leibniz (Gemälde von Bernhard
Christoph Francke, Braunschweig,
Herzog-Anton-Ulrich-Museum, um
1700) Source
http://www.hfac.uh.edu/gbrown/philosoph
ers/leibniz/BritannicaPages/Leibniz/Leib
nizGif.html Date ca. 1700 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Gottfried_Wilhelm_von_Leibniz.jpg
[2] Source:
http://www.daviddarling.info/encyclopedi
a/L/Leibniz.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Leibniz_231.jpg
[1684 AD]
Διώνη) and Tethys (TEtuS) (Greek
Τηθύς) identified.
[1] Bright Cliffs Across Saturn's Moon
Dione Credit: Cassini Imaging Team,
SSI, JPL, ESA, NASA Explanation:
What causes the bright streaks on
Dione? Recent images of this unusual
moon by the robot Cassini spacecraft
now orbiting Saturn are helping to
crack the mystery. Close inspection of
Dione's trailing hemisphere, pictured
above, indicates that the white wisps
are composed of deep ice cliffs
dropping hundreds of meters. The cliffs
may indicate that Dione has undergone
some sort of tectonic surface
displacements in its past. The bright
ice-cliffs run across some of Dione's
many craters, indicating that the
process that created them occurred
later than the impacts that created
those craters. Dione is made of mostly
water ice but its relatively high
density indicates that it contains much
rock inside. Giovanni Cassini
discovered Dione in 1684. The above
image was taken at the end of July from
a distance of about 263,000 kilometers.
Other high resolution images of Dione
were taken by the passing Voyager
spacecraft in 1980. PD
source: http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/ap0609
05.html
[2] 4,500 Kilometers Above
Dione Credit : Cassini Imaging Team,
SSI, JPL, ESA, NASA Explanation:
What does the surface of Saturn's moon
Dione look like? To find out, the robot
Cassini spacecraft currently orbiting
Saturn flew right past the fourth
largest moon of the giant planet
earlier this month. Pictured above is
an image taken about 4,500 kilometers
above Dione's icy surface, spanning
about 23 kilometers. Fractures,
grooves, and craters in Dione's ice and
rock are visible. In many cases,
surface features are caused by unknown
processes and can only be described.
Many of the craters have bright walls
but dark floors, indicating that
fresher ice is brighter. Nearly
parallel grooves run from the upper
right to the lower left. Fractures
sometimes across the bottom of craters,
indicating a relatively recent
formation. The lip of a 60-kilometer
wide crater runs from the middle left
to the upper center of the image, while
the crater's center is visible on the
lower right. Images like this will
continue to be studied to better
understand Dione as well as Saturn's
complex system of rings and moons. PD
source: http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/ap0510
26.html
[1687 AD]
(CE 1643-1727) describes the universal
law of gravitation, that all matter
attracts other matter with a force that
is the product of their masses, and the
inverse of their distance squared.
[1] Sir Isaac Newton's own first
edition copy of his Philosophiae
Naturalis Principia Mathematica with
his handwritten corrections for the
second edition. The first edition was
published under the imprint of Samuel
Pepys who was president of the Royal
Society. By the time of the second
edition, Newton himself had become
president of the Royal Society, as
noted in his corrections. The book can
be seen in the Wren Library of Trinity
College, Cambridge. CC
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:NewtonsPrincipia.jpg
[2] Description Isaac Newton Date
1689 Author Godfrey Kneller PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:GodfreyKneller-IsaacNewton-1689.jpg
[1690 AD]
known as Polhem) (CE 1661-1751), a
Swedish scientist, inventor and
industrialist invents a gear-cutting
machine (a machine for cutting gears
out of cylinders of metal).
[1] Christopher Polhem in 1741. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Christopher_Polhem_painted_by_Johan_H
enrik_Scheffel_1741.jpg
[1690 AD]
1611-1687), star catalog with 1564
stars is published posthumously as
"Prodromus Astronomiae" ("Guide to
Astronomy") (1690).
[1] Figur A: Ursa Minor - Lille
Bjørn PD
source: http://www.kb.dk/udstillinger/St
jernebilleder/atlasser/hevelius/index.ht
ml
[2] Johannes Hevelius. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Johannes_Helvelius.jpg
[1690 AD]
[1] First Piston Steam Engine, by
Papin. 19th century encyclopedia. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Papinengine.jpg
[2] subject: Denis Papin, unknown
artist, 1689. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Denis_Papin.jpg
[1691 AD]
publishes a book in which he describes
fossils as petrified remains of extinct
creatures, but this will not be
accepted by biologists for 100 years.
(is first to correctly identify
fossils?)
[1] John Ray From Shuster & Shipley,
facing p. 232. In turn from an original
portrait, by a painter not identified,
in (1917) the British Museum. PD
source: http://www.marcdatabase.com/~lem
ur/lemur.com/gallery-of-antiquarian-tech
nology/worthies/
[1693 AD]
publishes a book that contains the
first logical classification of
animals, based mainly of hoofs, toes,
and teeth.
[1] John Ray From Shuster & Shipley,
facing p. 232. In turn from an original
portrait, by a painter not identified,
in (1917) the British Museum. PD
source: http://www.marcdatabase.com/~lem
ur/lemur.com/gallery-of-antiquarian-tech
nology/worthies/
[1693 AD]
publishes "Synopsis Methodica Animalium
Quadrupedum et Serpentini Generis"
(1693; "Synopsis of Quadrupeds and
Reptiles").
[1] John Ray From Shuster & Shipley,
facing p. 232. In turn from an original
portrait, by a painter not identified,
in (1917) the British Museum. PD
source: http://www.marcdatabase.com/~lem
ur/lemur.com/gallery-of-antiquarian-tech
nology/worthies/
[1694 AD]
founded by Lutherans in 1694. This
progressive-minded school is one of the
first to renounce religious orthodoxy
of any kind in favour of rational and
objective intellectual inquiry, and is
the first where teachers lecture in
German (the venacular or common
language) instead of Latin. Halle's
innovations will be adopted by the
University of Göttingen (founded 1737)
a generation later and subsequently by
most German and many American
universities.
The Encyclopedia
Brittanica describes the university in
Halle the first modern university.
Until the end of
the 1700s, the curriculum of most
universities is based on the seven
liberal arts: grammar, logic, rhetoric,
geometry, arithmetic, astronomy, and
music. Students then proceeded to study
under one of the professional faculties
of medicine, law, and theology. Final
examinations are grueling, and many
students fail.
[1] Faculty of Theology. This page
provides a closer look at the Faculty
of Theology at the University of
Halle-Wittenberg. Click on the images
to enlarge. The Faculty of Theology is
located in the Francke Foundations.
This is the Main House of the
Foundations, a regular site of
exhibits, concerts and other events. To
its right is the entrance to the
Foundations and the home of their
founder, August Hermann Francke. At the
extreme right of the picture you may
catch a glimpse of the Faculty's main
building. COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://www.theologie.uni-halle.d
e/81_207025/?lang=en
_University_Library_Building_(Feb-2006).jpg)
[2] University Library building in
Halle (Saale).GNU
source: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wik
_University_Library_Building_(Feb-2006).jpg){kind=link}
i/Image:Halle_(Saale)_University_Library
_Building_(Feb-2006).jpg
[06/10/1695 AD]
(CE 1632-1723) identifies
parthenogenesis in aphids.
[1] Fig. 10. Leeuwenhoek''s Fig. 1 is a
''green louse'' (aphid) natural size;
his Fig. 2 is an aphid shell seen under
a microscope, from which a fly had
emerged at the bottom; his Fig. 3 is a
parasitic fly that emerged from an
aphid (26 October 1700, Royal Society
of London Philosophical Transactions
22:facing p. 655). COPYRIGHTED?
source: http://esapubs.org/bulletin/back
issues/087-1/bulletin_jan2006.htm
[2] Description w:Antoni van
Leeuwenhoek Source Project Gutenberg
ebook of Den Waaragtigen Omloop des
Bloeds http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/1
8929 http://www.gutenberg.org/files/189
29/18929-h/18929-h.htm Date
1686 Author J. Verkolje PD
source: http://www.abdn.ac.uk/mediarelea
ses/release.php?id=197
[07/02/1698 AD]
builds the first practical steam
engine.
[1]
URL:http://www.humanthermodynamics.com/H
T-history.html Description: Savery
Steam Engine [1698] PD
source: http://www.answers.com/topic/sav
ery-engine-jpg
[2]
http://www.history.rochester.edu/steam/t
hurston/1878/Chapter1.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Thomas_Savery.gif
[1698 AD]
stars is measured.
(presumably)
[1] Cosmotheoros (1698) PD
source: http://www.phys.uu.nl/~huygens/c
osmotheoros_en.htm
[2] The Proportion of the Magnitude of
the Planets, in respect of one another,
and the Sun PD
source: http://www.phys.uu.nl/~huygens/c
osmotheoros_nl.htm
[1699 AD]
of light is suggested.
[1] Engraving by N. Edelinck after I.
B. Santerre - Nicolas Malebranche PD
source: http://www.archiv.cas.cz/english
/foto/malebra.htm
[1700 AD]
invented by Bartolomeo Cristofori,
Keeper of Musical Instruments to Prince
Ferdinand dei Medici at Florence.
According to the diary of Francesco
Mannucci for February 1711, Cristofori
was already working on it in 1698. An
inventory of the Prince's instruments
in 1700 includes "an arpicembalo of
Bartolomeo Cristofori, a new invention,
which plays piano and forte....with
some dampers of red cloth touching the
strings and some hammers which make the
piano and forte.". The "gravicembalo
col piano e forte, as it is also known,
is virtually a harpsichord but with
hammers instead of plectra.
Forte, (pronounced faw-ti) from
Italian, is an instruction in music to
play a passage loudly or strongly.
The word
"Piano" is used to mean a passage that
is supposed to be played softly or
quietly.
This indicates that the volume of the
notes can be varied and controlled with
this instrument.
[1] [t Note Remnant describes
apparently the same piao as ''The
oldest surviving piano, by Bartolomeo
Cristofori, Florence, 1720. New York
Metropolitan Museum of Art, Crosby
Brown Collection''] Description
English: Piano forte by Bartolomeo
Cristofori manufactured in 1722, Museo
Nazionale degli Strumenti Musicali di
Roma Date 28 January 2010 Source
Own work CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/32/Piano_forte_Cristofor
i_1722.JPG
[1704 AD]
publishes a three-volume encyclopedia
of plant life (1686-1704), in which he
describes 18,600 different plant
species, and lays the groundwork for
systematic classification which will be
done by Linneaus.
[1] John Ray From Shuster & Shipley,
facing p. 232. In turn from an original
portrait, by a painter not identified,
in (1917) the British Museum. PD
source: http://www.marcdatabase.com/~lem
ur/lemur.com/gallery-of-antiquarian-tech
nology/worthies/
[1704 AD]
particles are affected by gravity.
(presumably)
[1] Isaac Newton, ''Draft of 'A Theory
Concerning Light and Colors''', Feb 6,
1671/2, in English, c. 5,137 words,
14pp. Shelfmark: MS Add. 3970.3,
ff.460-466 Location: Cambridge
University Library, Cambridge,
UK http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.u
k/view/texts/normalized/NATP00003 PD
source: http://www.newtonproject.sussex.
ac.uk/view/texts/normalized/NATP00003
[2] Description Isaac Newton Date
1689 Author Godfrey Kneller PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:GodfreyKneller-IsaacNewton-1689.jpg
[1705 AD]
the first to understand that comets
orbit the Sun and to calculate the path
of a comet.
[1] Description Comet P/Halley as
taken March 8, 1986 by W. Liller,
Easter Island, part of the
International Halley Watch (IHW) Large
Scale Phenomena Network. Source
NSSDC's Photo Gallery (NASA): *
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/photo_gallery
/photogallery-comets.html *
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/image/planeta
ry/comet/lspn_comet_halley1.jpg Date
image taken on 8. Mar. 1986 Author
NASA/W. Liller Permission (Reusing
this image) Copyright information
from
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/photo_gallery
/photogallery-faq.html - All of the
images presented on NSSDC's Photo
Gallery are in the public domain. As
such, they may be used for any purpose.
[...] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Lspn_comet_halley.jpg
[2] Portrait of Edmond Halley painted
around 1687 by Thomas Murray (Royal
Society, London) uploaded from
http://www.phys.uu.nl/~vgent/astrology/n
ewton.htm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Edmund_Halley.gif
[1705 AD]
proves that stars move over long
periods of time. Before this most
people believed that stars unlike the
planets never move in relation to each
other.
[1] Description Comet P/Halley as
taken March 8, 1986 by W. Liller,
Easter Island, part of the
International Halley Watch (IHW) Large
Scale Phenomena Network. Source
NSSDC's Photo Gallery (NASA): *
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/photo_gallery
/photogallery-comets.html *
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/image/planeta
ry/comet/lspn_comet_halley1.jpg Date
image taken on 8. Mar. 1986 Author
NASA/W. Liller Permission (Reusing
this image) Copyright information
from
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/photo_gallery
/photogallery-faq.html - All of the
images presented on NSSDC's Photo
Gallery are in the public domain. As
such, they may be used for any purpose.
[...] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Lspn_comet_halley.jpg
[2] Portrait of Edmond Halley painted
around 1687 by Thomas Murray (Royal
Society, London) uploaded from
http://www.phys.uu.nl/~vgent/astrology/n
ewton.htm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Edmund_Halley.gif
[1710 AD]
"Historia insectorum" (1710) is
published posthumously and records some
300 species of insects.
[1] John Ray From Shuster & Shipley,
facing p. 232. In turn from an original
portrait, by a painter not identified,
in (1917) the British Museum. PD
source: http://www.marcdatabase.com/~lem
ur/lemur.com/gallery-of-antiquarian-tech
nology/worthies/
[1712 AD]
(CE 1663-1729) designs an improved
steam engine that does not use
high-pressure steam.
England
[1] Il disegno rappresenta il principio
di funzionamento della macchina
realizzata da Newcomen nel 1712 PD
source: http://www.racine.ra.it/ungarett
i/SeT/macvapor/wattbiog.htm
[2] Newcomen engine from Practical
physics for secondary schools.
Fundamental principles and applications
to daily life, publ. 1913 by Macmillan
and Company, p. 219 A full version of
the book can be found at
http://www.archive.org/details/practical
physics00blacrich, including
high-resultion colour scans (300 dpi)
of every page
(ftp://ia310940.us.archive.org/1/items/p
racticalphysics00blacrich). PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Newcomen6325.png
[1714 AD]
1686-1736), invents a thermometer that
uses mercury and the Fahrenheit
temperature scale (still in use
today).
Fahrenheit notices that boiling point
changes with change in pressure.
(presumably)
[1] Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit (1686 -
1736) PD
source: http://sabaoth.infoserve.pl/danz
ig-online/sl.html
[2] Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit
(Quecksilberthermometer) (* 24. Mai
1686 in Danzig, 16. September 1736
in Den Haag) PD
source: http://www.erfinder.at/tag-der-e
rfinder/Daniel-Gabriel-Fahrenheit.php
[1718 AD]
made of empty space and that light
moves in a straight line.
[1] The first, 1704, edition of Opticks
or a treatise of the reflections,
refractions, inflections and colours of
light PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Opticks.jpg
[2] Description Isaac Newton Date
1689 Author Godfrey Kneller PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:GodfreyKneller-IsaacNewton-1689.jpg
[1725 AD]
star catalog "Historia Coelestis
Britannica" ("British Celestial
Record") is published posthumously.
[1] John Flamsteed. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:John_Flamsteed.jpg
[2] Bust of John Flamsteed in the
Museum of the Royal Greenwich
Observatory, London PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:John_Flamsteed_Royal_Greenwich_Observ
atory_Museum.jpg
[1725 AD]
paper to form patterns in textiles.
[1] Basile Bouchon's loom,
1725 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://cs-exhibitions.uni-klu.ac
.at/uploads/pics/Basile_Bouchons_loom_01
.jpg
[01/??/1729 AD]
the apparent change in position of
stars.
[1] Figure from Bradley's paper PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?pg
=PA260&dq=%22Mr.+B+considered+this+matte
r%22&id=MPg4AAAAMAAJ#v=onepage&q=%22Mr.%
20B%20considered%20this%20matter%22&f=fa
lse
[2] James Bradley (1693-1762), English
astronomer. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:James_Bradley.jpg
[1729 AD]
1703-1771), a British lawyer, produces
the first achromatic lenses in 1729.
[1] Diagram of an achromatic lens
(doublet). PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/46/Achromat_doublet_en.s
vg
[1730 AD]
men independently, John Hadley
(1682-1744), an English mathematician,
and Thomas Godfrey (1704-1749), an
American inventor. Isaac Newton
invented the principle of the doubly
reflecting navigation instrument, but
never published it. The sextant, along
with the octant, replace the astrolabe
as the main instruments for
navigation.
The main advantage ofthe sextant over
the astrolabe is that celestial objects
are measured relative to the horizon,
rather than to the instrument, which
allows much better precision.
The angle, and the
time when a celestial object is
measured, can be used to calculate a
position line on a nautical or
aeronautical chart. A common use of the
sextant is to sight the sun at noon to
find what latitude a person is at. Held
horizontally, the sextant can be used
to measure the angle between any two
objects.
Traditional sextants have a
half-horizon mirror. It divides the
field of view in two. On one side,
there is a view of the horizon; on the
other side, a view of the celestial
object. The advantage of this type is
that both the horizon and celestial
object are bright, and as clear as
possible. Whole-horizon sextants use a
half-silvered horizon mirror to provide
a full view of the horizon. This makes
it easy to see when the bottom limb of
a celestial object touches the horizon.
[1] Black-and-white image of a sextant.
Not detailed. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Sextant.gif
.jpg)
[2] Grand Turk, a replica of a
three-masted 6th rate frigate from
Nelson's days - sextant and logbook.
GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Grand_Turk%2835%29.jpg
[1730 AD]
Swedish chemist names a blue iron-like
metal "cobalt".
[1] Appearance metallic with gray
tinge PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Cobalt-sample.jpg
[2] Cobalt GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Co-TableImage.png
[12/??/1733 AD]
identifies two kinds of electricity:
"vitreous" (Franklin will name
"positive") and "resinous" (Franklin
will name "negative").
[1] 1733 AD: Charles Francois de
Cisternay Du FayThe French chemist
Charles Francois de Cisternay Du Fay
(1698-1739) discovered that when
objects are rubbed together they either
repel or attract each other and
therefore that electricity came in two
forms, which he called ''resinous'' (-)
and ''vitreous'' (+). PD
source: http://www.worldofenergy.com.au/
07_timeline_world_1675_1780.html
[1733 AD]
invents the "flying shuttle", which
increases the speed of weaving, and
allows one person to weave greater
widths of cloth. The original shuttle
is a piece of wood that contains a
bobbin on to which the weft yarn (the
yarn that goes crossways) is wound. The
shuttle is pushed from one side of the
warp (the series of yarns extended
lengthways in a loom) to the other
side. Before the flying shuttle, large
looms required two people. The flying
shuttle is thrown by a lever that can
be operated by only one weaver.
In 1753 Kay's house is attacked by
textile workers who are angry that his
inventions might take work away from
them. Kay fleas to France where he will
die in poverty.
[1] Flying shuttles COPYRIGHTED
source: http://inventors.about.com/libra
ry/inventors/blflyingshuttle.htm
[1734 AD]
Réaumur (rAOmYOR) (CE 1683-1757)
publishes (in six volumes) "Memoires
pour servir à l'histoire des insectes"
(1734-42; "Memoirs Serving as a Natural
History of Insects"), the first serious
and comprehensive book on insects.
[1] René-Antoine Ferchault de
Réaumur Source Galerie des
naturalistes de J. Pizzetta, Ed.
Hennuyer, 1893 (tombé dans le domaine
public) Date Author J.
Pizzetta PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Reaumur_1683-1757.jpg
[1734 AD]
1688-1772), Swedish scientist, suggests
an early form of the nebular
hypothesis, the theory that the star
system formed from a nebula (cloud of
particles).
[1] * Emanuel Swedenborg at the age of
75, holding the soon to be published
manuscript of Apocalypsis Revelata
(1766). * Painting by Per Kraft.
Currently located at the Government
collection of paintings, w:Gripsholm,
Sweden. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Emanuel_Swedenborg_full_portrait.jpg
[1735 AD]
English instrument maker, builds the
first clock that can keep accurate time
at sea.
[1] John Harrison était autodidacte.
Son frère James et lui mirent au point
une première horloge en 1735: le H1,
elle ne ressemblait pas du tout à une
horloge au sens propre, mais elle
fonctionnait plutôt bien. Ce fût
le début des premiers chronomètres de
marine avec balancier et spiral. Il est
en outre l'inventeur du pendule
compensateur à gril et d'un système
de compensation pour les
montres. From [2]: John Harrison,
detail of an oil painting by Thomas
King; in the Science Museum,
London Courtesy of the Science Museum,
London, lent by W.H. Barton[2] PD
source: http://www.worldtempus.com/wt/1/
903
[2] Scientist: Harrison, John (1693 -
1776) Discipline(s): Scientific
Instruments Print Artist: William
Holl, 1807-1871 Medium: Engraving
Original Artist: King Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 12.5 x 10.2 cm /
Sheet: 27.3 x 18.1 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=h
[1735 AD]
EuS) (CE 1707-1778) creates a uniform
system for categorizing living objects
of Earth, including the human species.
[1] Artist Alexander Roslin Title
Carl von Linné 1707-1778 Year
1775 Technique Oil on
canvas Dimensions 56 x 46 cm Current
location Royal Science Academy of
Sweden (Kungliga vetenskapsakademin)
Stockholm Permission Public
domain Carl von Linné painted by
Alexander Roslin in 1775. The original
painting can be viewed at the Royal
Science Academy of Sweden (Kungliga
vetenskapsakademin). PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Carl_von_Linn%C3%A9.jpg
[2] Carl von Linné (Carolus Linnaeus)
(1707 - 1778) ''The Father of
Taxonomy'' PD
source: http://www.mun.ca/biology/scarr/
Linnaeus.htm
[1736 AD]
(CE 1698-1759) verifies that the Earth
is an oblate spheroid (a sphere
flattened at the poles).
[1] Scientist: Maupertuis,
Pierre-Louis Moreau de (1698 -
1759) Discipline(s): Mathematics ;
Biology ; Physics Print Artist:
Johann Jakob Haid, 1704-1767 Medium:
Engraving Original Artist: R.
Tourmere Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 31 x 19 cm / PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/by_d
iscipline_display_results.cfm?Research_D
iscipline_1=Biology
[2] Scientist: Maupertuis,
Pierre-Louis Moreau de (1698 -
1759) Discipline(s): Mathematics ;
Biology ; Physics Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 13.9 x 11 cm / Sheet: 30.7 x
21.5 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/by_d
iscipline_display_results.cfm?Research_D
iscipline_1=Biology
[1737 AD]
posthumously Jan Swammerdam's (Yon
SVoMRDoM) (CE 1637-1680) many
manuscripts in two volumes called
"Biblia naturae" ("Bible of Nature").
(presumably)
[1]
http://www.dvjb.kvl.dk/English/ul/exhibi
tions/web%20exhibitions/insects.aspx Ja
n Swammerdam (1637-80): Biblia naturae.
1737/38 og 1752 DVJB has the first
edition of this major scientific work
made up of three folio volumes with
Dutch and Latin text from 1737/38 and a
single-volume German edition from 1752.
PD
source: http://www.dvjb.kvl.dk/upload/dv
jb/ill/roeseninsect/swammerdam-a.jpg
[2] same PD
source: http://www.dvjb.kvl.dk/upload/dv
jb/ill/roeseninsect/swammerdam-b.jpg
[1740 AD]
20 June 1776), English inventor and
steel-manufacturer, creates the
"crucible" method to make "crucible
steel", in an effort to make a better
steel for clock springs. Huntsman's
system used a coke-fired furnace
capable of reaching 1600 °C, into
which ten or twelve clay crucibles,
each holding about 15 kg of iron, were
placed. When the pots are at a white
heat they are charged with blister
steel broken into lumps of about ½ kg,
and a flux to help remove impurities.
The pots are removed after about 3
hours in the furnace, impurities
skimmed off, and the molten steel
poured into ingots.
Crucible steels will remain the best
steel on earth, although very
expensive, until the introduction of
the Bessemer process will replace it.
The Bessemer process will be able to
produce steel of similar (or better)
quality for a fraction of the time and
cost. The Besemer process and more
modern methods instead remove carbon
from the pig iron, stopping before all
the carbon is removed.
[1742 AD]
1701-1744) invents the Celsius
temperature scale (often called the
centigrade scale).
[1] Painting by Olof Arenius (1701 -
1766) Uppsala University -
Astronomical Observatory PD
source: http://www.astro.uu.se/history/i
mages/celsius2.jpg
[2] Anders Celsius, detail from a
drawing by an unknown artist, 18th
century. Archiv fur Kunst und
Geschichte, Berlin PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
/print?id=9261&articleTypeId=0
[1742 AD]
1720-1793), Swiss naturalist,
identifies that insects breathe through
pores he names "stigmata".
[1] engraving of Charles Bonnet Source
http://www.ville-ge.ch/musinfo/mhng/pag
e1/ins-ill-04.htm Date paint in
1777 Author Paint by I. Iuel et
engraved by IF. Clemens PD
source: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wik
i/Image:Charles_Bonnet_engraved.jpg
[2] Charles Bonnet
(1720-1793). Source:
http://www.univie.ac.at/science-archives
/wissenschaftstheorie_2/bonnet.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:CharlesBonnet.jpg
[1743 AD]
(CE 1713-1765) confirms that the orbit
of the Moon follows the inverse
distance law.
[1] Scientist: Clairaut, Alexis Claude
(1713 - 1765) Discipline(s):
Mathematics ; Astronomy Print Artist:
Cathelin Medium: Engraving
Original Artist: Charles-Nicolas
Cochin, 1715-1790 Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 23.5 x 17 cm /
Sheet: 29.8 x 21.2 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=c
[11/04/1745 AD]
capacitor.
Ewald Georg von Kleist (KlIST) (CE
1700-1748), invents the (first)
electric storage or electric memory,
the capacitor, the Leyden jar.
Sea between Germany and Poland)
[1]
http://books.google.com/books?id=ko9BAAA
AIAAJ&pg=PA71&dq=jar+%22von+Kleist%22&lr
=&as_brr=1&ei=aniTR_uCJ5HwsgOQ5bU4#PPA71
,M1 page with text and figure about
von Kleist's invention of the Leyden
jar Source Electricity in Every-day
Life Date 1905 Author Edwin J.
Houston PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Von_Kleist_Leyden_jar_1905.png
[1745 AD]
Germany
[1] a is connected to the electrified
conductor; b is the insulated clapper;
c the grounded gong. PD/Corel
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=TFLkGa4bDCIC
[2] Franklin's Bells COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.arcsandsparks.com/fra
nklin.html
[04/20/1746 AD]
(mOESeNBrvK v=oo in book) (CE
1692-1761), Dutch physicist invents
the first device that can store a large
amounts of electric charge. This device
will come to be called a "Leiden jar".
This is an early form of the capacitor.
[1] Pieter van Musschenbroek aus:
http://20eeuwennederland.nl/actueel/1113
.htm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Pieter_van_Musschenbroek.jpeg
[2] AD 1745 E.G. Von Kliest & Pieter
van Musschenbroek PD
source: http://itp.nyu.edu/~nql3186/elec
tricity/pages/leyden.html
[07/11/1747 AD]
a single fluid.
(letter to London, England)
[1] Credit: ''White House Historical
Association (White House Collection)''
(981) Painted in 1759 by British
artist and scientist Benjamin Wilson
-who disagreed with Franklin's findings
about electrical polarity -this
portrait hung in Franklin's dining room
in Philadelphia until Captain Andre'
stole it during the British occupation
of Philadelphia. Returned to the U.S.
in 1906, it is now in the White House,
in Washington, D. C. PD
source: http://www.explorepahistory.com/
displayimage.php?imgId=668
[2] Multimedia Gallery -
Image Portrait of Benjamin Franklin by
artist David Martin
(1737-1797) Portrait of Benjamin
Franklin by artist David Martin
(1737-1797) Credit: Library of
Congress, LC-USZC4-3576 PD
source: http://www.nsf.gov/news/mmg/medi
a/images/benfranklin2_h3.jpg
[1747 AD]
Scottish physician, performs one of the
earliest clinical experiments and shows
that citrus fruits work well in curing
scurvy.
[1] Painted by Sir George Chalmers, c
1720-1791. painting: PD image:
COPYRIGHTED?
source: http://www.jameslindlibrary.org/
trial_records/17th_18th_Century/lind/lin
d_portrait.html
[2] James Lind painting: PD image:
COPYRIGHTED?
source: http://dodd.cmcvellore.ac.in/hom
/17%20-%20James%20Lind.html
[1747 AD]
gas lowers temperature, the basis of
refrigeration.
Russia
[1] St. Petersburg, 6 August 1783.
Prof. Richman and his assistant being
struck by lightning while charging
capacitors. The assistant escaped
almost unharmed, whereas Richman was
dead immediately. The pathologic
analysis revealed that ''he only had a
small hole in his forehead, a burnt
left shoe and a blue spot at his foot.
[...] the brain being ok, the front
part of the lung sane, but the rear
being brown and black of blood.'' The
conclusion was that the electric
discharge had taken its way through
Richmann's body. The scientific
community was shocked. [t notice
difference in dates] PD/Corel
source: http://www.hp-gramatke.net/histo
ry/english/page4000.htm
[2] Description Black and white
print of a William Cullen
portrait Source Medical Portrait
Gallery Date 1834 Author Thomas
Pettigrew PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0c/Cullen_William.jpg
[02/14/1748 AD]
English Astronomer, announces his
finding of the "annual change of
declination in some of the fixed stars"
(which Bradley calls "nutation"), that
result because of the movement of the
nodes of the Moon's orbit around the
earth.
[1] James Bradley (1693-1762), English
astronomer. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:James_Bradley.jpg
[1748 AD]
[1] Jean-Antoine Nollet PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Abbenollet.jpg
[2] Scientist: Nollet, Jean-Antoine,
abbé (1700 - 1770) Discipline(s):
Physics Print Artist: Pasqual Pere
Moles I Corones, 1741-1797 Medium:
Engraving Original Artist: Georges
de a Tour, 1593-1652 Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 13.8 x 11.8 cm /
Sheet: 27.4 x 19.5 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=n
[1749 AD]
1713-1784), French writer , presents a
theory of survival by superior
adaptation.
[1] Portrait of Denis
Diderot 1767 Oil on canvas, 81 x 65
cm Musée du Louvre, Paris PD
source: http://www.wga.hu/art/l/loo/loui
s/diderot.jpg
[2] Scientist: Diderot, Denis (1713 -
1784) Discipline(s):
Encyclopedist Print Artist: Pierre
Pelee, 1801-1871 Medium: Engraving
Original Artist: Felix Emmanuel
Henri Philippoteaux, 1815-1884
Original Dimensions: Graphic: 15.7 x
13.1 cm / Sheet: 26.4 x 18.3 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=d
[1751 AD]
1713-1784), French writer , begins
publishing "Encyclopédie" (1751-1772),
a twenty-eight volume encyclopedia.
[1] Info: Cover of the Encyclopédie.
Resized to 600px width Credit: See
List of contributors to the
Encyclopédie Source:
http://ets.lib.uchicago.edu/ARTFL/OLDENC
YC/images PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:ENC_1-NA5_600px.jpeg
[2] Info: ''Figurative System of
organisation of human knowledge from
the en:Encyclopédie. For an English
translation see: en:Figurative system
of human knowledge
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Figurativ
e_system_of_human_knowledge Credit:
See en:List of contributors to the
Encyclopédie Source:
http://ets.lib.uchicago.edu/ARTFL/OLDENC
YC/images PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:ENC_SYSTEME_FIGURE.jpeg
[1751 AD]
(KrUNSTeT), (CE 1722-1765), Swedish
mineralogist isolates the element
Nickel.
[1] Axel Fredrik Cronstedt
(1722-1765) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jergym.hiedu.cz/~cano
vm/objevite/objev/cron.htm
[2] Axel Fredrik Cronstedt
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.bgf.nu/ljus/u/cronste
dt.html
[02/20/1752 AD]
(producing X-Ray light).
[1] William Watson (1715â''1787)
* Print Artist: J. Thornwaite *
Medium/Year: Line engraving, 1784
* Original Artist: after an oilpainting
by Lemuel Francis Abbott *
Original Dimensions: Graphic: 9.8 x 7.7
cm / Sheet: 14.5 x 10.2 cm PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Willi
am_Watson.jpg
[2] Figure from a Watson 1746
paper PD/Corel
source: A Sequel to the Experiments and
Observations Tending to Illustrate the
Nature and Properties of Electricity;
In a Letter to the Royal Society from
the Same Journal Philosophical
Transactions (1683-1775) Issue Volume
44 - 1746/1747 Author William
Watson DOI 10.1098/rstl.1746.0119 Wats
on_William_1746_Sequel.pdf
[1752 AD]
Réaumur (rAOmYOR) (CE 1683-1757),
proves that digestion is chemical and
not mechanical by putting food in small
metal cylinders which are then
regurgitated by birds with partially
digested food.
Réaumur also isolates gastric juice.
[1] René-Antoine Ferchault de
Réaumur Source Galerie des
naturalistes de J. Pizzetta, Ed.
Hennuyer, 1893 (tombé dans le domaine
public) Date Author J.
Pizzetta PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Reaumur_1683-1757.jpg
[02/17/1753 AD]
(presumably)
[1753 AD]
1708-1777), Swiss physiologist, is the
first to demonstrate experimentally
that sensibility (the ability to
produce sensation) exists only in
organs supplied with nerves, while
irritability (a reaction to stimuli,
known today as contractility) is a
property of the organ or tissue.
[1] Albrecht von Haller PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Albrecht_von_Haller.jpg
[2] Haller, of Swiss origin, was a
leading figure in eighteenth-century
physiology. He conceived the idea of
'sensibility' and 'irritability' to
explain the body's reaction to
stimulus. In his formulation of the
concept of irritability to account for
muscle contraction, he first
acknowledged, although in an implicit
way, the importance of information flow
in biological systems. (Image courtesy
of the library G. Romiti of the
Anatomical Institute of the University
of Pisa.) PD
source: http://www.nature.com/nrm/journa
l/v1/n2/fig_tab/nrm1100_149a_F2.html
[01/25/1755 AD]
University (Russian:
Москоk
4;ский
госудk
2;рстве
085;ный
унивеl
8;ситет
имени
М.В.Лом
086;носов&
#1072;), the oldest university in
mainland Russia is founded.
Moscow University is established on the
instigation of Ivan Shuvalov and
Mikhail Lomonosov by a decree of
Russian Empress Elizabeth. First
lessons are held on April 26. January
25 is still celebrated as Students' Day
in Russia.
[1] Lomonosov University in Moscow,
Russia GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Moskau_Uni.jpg
[2] Building of the Moscow State
University on the Mokhovaya Street (now
the dean's office). 18th-century
watercolour. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Mgu_1798.jpg
[11/??/1755 AD]
first democratic republic
(representative democracy) and first
Constitution (the design and laws of a
government usually recorded on a hand
written document) of the Enlightenment.
This Republic is formed under the
leadership of Pasquale Paoli against
the rulers of Genoa.
[1] Buste of the Corsican politician
Pasquale Paoli, by John Flaxman, at
Westminster Abbey, London. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Buste_Pasquale_Paoli.jpg
[1755 AD]
German philosopher puts forward a
nebular hypothesis, that the star
system formed as a result of the
gravitational interaction of atoms, and
that the Milky Way is a lens shaped
collection of stars and that other such
"island universes" exist.
.jpg)
[1] Steel engraving by J. L. Raab, 1791
after a painting by Döbler Source:
[1]
http://www.jhu.edu/~phil/kant-hegelconfe
rence/main.htm PD
source: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wik
.jpg){kind=link}
i/Image:Immanuel_Kant_(portrait).jpg
[2] Kant PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Kant_2.jpg
[1755 AD]
Scottish chemist rediscovers carbon
dioxide (which he calls "fixed air").
[1] Scan of an old picture of Joseph
Black Source The Gases of the
Atmosphere (old book) Date
1896 Author William Ramsay PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Black_Joseph.jpg
[1757 AD]
(CE 1713-1765) is the first to estimate
the mass of celestial objects based on
the perturbations they have on the
earth's motion. Using this method,
Clairaut estimates the mass of Venus to
be 2/3 (.667) of earth (actual: around
4/5 {0.815} Earths) and the moon to be,
and the mass of moon to be 1/67 (.0149)
of earth (actual: 1/81 {0.0123}), which
are the most accurate for the time.
[1] Scientist: Clairaut, Alexis Claude
(1713 - 1765) Discipline(s):
Mathematics ; Astronomy Print Artist:
Cathelin Medium: Engraving
Original Artist: Charles-Nicolas
Cochin, 1715-1790 Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 23.5 x 17 cm /
Sheet: 29.8 x 21.2 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=c
[1758 AD]
the water frame, by adapting a water
wheel to a spinning frame (a device
invented by Lewis Paul that uses draw
rollers to stretch, or attenuate, the
yarn. A thick 'string' of cotton roving
is passed between three sets of
rollers, each set rotating faster than
the previous one. In this way the
cotton is reduced in thickness and
increased in length before a
strengthening twist is added by a
bobbin-and-flyer mechanism). Highs (or
possibly James Hargreaves) may also be
the inventor of the "Spinning Jenny", a
multi-spool spinning wheel.
[1] An image of Thomas Highs' spinning
jenny design, taken Edward Baines's
History of the Cotton Manufacture in
Great Britain. Since Baine has been
dead for over 100 years, this image is
now in the public domain. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Thomashighsjenny.JPG
[1760 AD]
oxygen using electricity.
Giovanni Beccaria (CE 1716-1781),
Italian physicist, passes electricity
sparks through water and observes
bubbles (of Hydrogen and Oxygen gas)
released from the water but incorrectly
supposes that the action of the
electric matter promotes the
evaporation of water.
Beccaria does not recognize that the
gases produced are the components of
water.
[1] Anonimo, Giambattista Beccaria,
fine secolo XVIII PD?
source: http://www.torinoscienza.it/img/
orig/it/s00/00/000c/00000c89.jpg
[2] Beccaria, Giovanni Battista
(1716-1781) PD?
source: http://bms.beniculturali.it/ritr
atti/ritratti.php?chiave=ritr0079
[1761 AD]
(lumunOSuF) (CE 1711-1765) Russian
chemist and writer, is the first to
observe the atmophere of Venus which
Lomonosov does through the transit of
Venus across the sun, concluding that
Venus has an atmosphere "similar to, or
perhaps greater than that of the
earth".
[1] from
http://www.peoples.ru/science/founder/lo
monosov/ PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Lomonosov.jpg
[1763 AD]
(LoKoYu) (CE 1713-1762) prepares a
catalog of the positions of nearly
10,000 stars, including nearly two
thousand stars seen only from the
Southern Hemisphere of earth. (This
book also contains) a star map which is
much more extensive and accurate than
Halley's.
Lacaille identifies Alpha Centauri, the
closest star to the sun, and names 14
new southern constellations after
astronomical instruments.
[1] Nicolas Louis de Lacaille Born:
15-May-1713 Birthplace: Rumigny,
France Died: 21-Mar-1762 Location of
death: Paris, France Cause of death:
unspecified PD
source: http://www.nndb.com/people/370/0
00105055/
[2] Nicolas Louis de Lacaille PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Nicolas_Louis_de_Lacaille.jpg
[1764 AD]
Scottish chemist recognizes the
difference between intensity
(temperature) and quantity of heat.
Black discovers the idea of "latent
heat", which is the characteristic
amount of heat absorbed or released by
a substance during a change in its
physical state that occurs without
changing its temperature. Black
identifies the principle of "specific
heat", which is the temperature change
in a substance that results from a
specific quantity of heat.
[1] Scan of an old picture of Joseph
Black Source The Gases of the
Atmosphere (old book) Date
1896 Author William Ramsay PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Black_Joseph.jpg
[05/??/1765 AD]
Scottish engineer improves Newcomen's
steam engine by inventing the "separate
condenser", so that heat is not lost
when cooling and reheating the steam
chamber.
[1] From
http://www.lib.utexas.edu/photodraw/port
raits/index.html, in the public
domain original source: Helmolt, H.F.,
ed. History of the World. New York:
Dodd, Mead and Company, 1902. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:James_Watt.jpg
[2] James Watt, oil painting by H.
Howard; in the National Portrait
Gallery, London. Courtesy of The
National Portrait Gallery, London
PD COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-15159/James-Watt-oil-painting-by-H-Howa
rd-in-the-National?articleTypeId=1
[05/29/1766 AD]
Henry Cavendish (CE 1731-1810), English
chemist and physicist, produces
hydrogen by dissolving metals in acids
and carbon dioxide by dissolving
alkalis in acids, and collects these
and other gases in bottles inverted
over water or mercury.
[1] Figures 1-6 from: Henry Cavendish,
''Three Papers, Containing Experiments
on Factitious Air, by the Hon. Henry
Cavendish, F. R. S.'', Philosophical
Transactions (1683-1775) , Vol. 56,
(1766), pp.
141-184 http://www.jstor.org/stable/105
491 PD
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1054
91
[2] By Henry Cavendish Published
1921 The University Press PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=ygqYnSR3oe0C&printsec=frontcover&dq=the
+scientific+papers+cavendish#PPA78-IA
[1768 AD]
(CE 1728-1777) German mathematician,
introduces the hyperbolic trigonometric
functions (sinh, cosh, etc., just as
the ordinary sine and cosine functions
trace (or parameterize) a circle, so
the sinh and cosh parameterize a
hyperbola). Also in this year, Lambert
provides the first rigorous proof that
pi (the ratio of a circle's
circumference to its diameter) is an
irrational quantity, meaning that it
cannot be expressed as the quotient (or
ratio) of two integers.
[1] copied from
http://www.galerie-universum.de/gu_2003/
ausstellungstafeln/ahnengalerie_wissensc
haftler/lambert_lang.htm Johann H.
Lambert PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:JHLambert.jpg
[2] Lambert, Johann Heinrich (1728 -
1777) Discipline(s): Mathematics ;
Physics ; Astronomy Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 7.6 x 8.8 cm
PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/by_d
iscipline_display_results.cfm?Research_D
iscipline_1=Physics
[1768 AD]
(CE 1729-1799), Italian biologist,
provides evidence against the theory of
spontaneous generation by showing that
after 30-45 minutes of boiling, no
microorganisms appear in sealed
solutions of food.
[1] Lazzaro Spallanzani, Italian
biologist,
1729-99 Source:http://home.tiscalinet.c
h/biografien/biografien/spallanzani.htm
PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Spallanzani.jpg
[2] Spallanzani, detail of an oil
painting by an unknown artist; in the
collection of the Universita degli
Studi di Pavia, Italy Courtesy of the
Universita degli Studi di Pavia,
Italy Related Articles: Spallanzani,
Lazzaro (Encyclopædia
Britannica) Italian physiologist who
made important contributions to the
experimental study of bodily functions
and animal reproduction. His
investigations into the development of
microscopic life in nutrient culture
solutions paved the way for the
research of Louis Pasteur. To cite
this page: * MLA style:
''Spallanzani, Lazzaro.'' Online
Photograph. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. 12 Nov. 2007
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-31518/Spallanzani-detail-of-an-oil-pain
ting-by-an-unknown-artist?articleTypeId=
1
[1769 AD]
A steam-engine powered automobile.
Nicolas-Joseph Cugnot (26 February 1725
- 2 October 1804), a French inventor,
builds what may be the first
self-propelled vehicle built on earth
using a steam engine.
Cugnot may be the first to convert the
back-and-forth motion of a steam piston
into rotary motion (James Watt does
this too in 1781 in England).
[1] Nicolas-Joseph Cugnot's steam auto,
from 7 August, 1869 issue of Appleton's
Journal of Popular Literature, Science,
and Art. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:CugnotAppleton.jpg
[2] Fardier de Cugnot, modèle de
1771. Musée des Arts et Métiers,
Paris. 11 janvier 2005. (Note that
this is the second fardier, the
full-size one. It is not a 'model' (as
has been mis-translated
elsewhere)) Source : Photo et
photographisme © Roby 19:13, 12 Jan
2005 (UTC). Avec l'aimable permission
du Musée des Arts et Métiers, Paris.
GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/56/FardierdeCugnot200501
11.jpg
[1769 AD]
English inventor, patents a device that
will spin thread by mechanically
reproducing the motions ordinarily made
by the human hand, that will come to be
called the "water frame".
[1] Description Richard Arkwright
portrait Source
http://utopia.utexas.edu/project/port
raits/arkwright.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Richard_arkwright.jpg
[2] Richard Arkwright
1732-92 COPYRIGHTED?
source: http://www.derwentvalleymills.or
g/04_his/his_003b.htm
[1772 AD]
1713-1784), French writer , completes
his "Encyclopédie" (1751-1772), in 28
volumes, 17 of text and 11 of
illustrates plates.
[1] Portrait of Denis
Diderot 1767 Oil on canvas, 81 x 65
cm Musée du Louvre, Paris PD
source: http://www.wga.hu/art/l/loo/loui
s/diderot.jpg
[2] Scientist: Diderot, Denis (1713 -
1784) Discipline(s):
Encyclopedist Print Artist: Pierre
Pelee, 1801-1871 Medium: Engraving
Original Artist: Felix Emmanuel
Henri Philippoteaux, 1815-1884
Original Dimensions: Graphic: 15.7 x
13.1 cm / Sheet: 26.4 x 18.3 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=d
[1772 AD]
1724-1793) attempts to detect the
momentum of light particles by allowing
sunlight to reflect off of a square
copper plate balanced by a harpsichord
wire attached to a counterweight.
According to Joseph Priestly, the
copper plate does turn (in the
direction the light is moving in?).
In 1792 Abraham Bennet, using a
vibration magnetometer, will claim to
get a null result.
(presumably)
[1772 AD]
describes how to dissolve carbon
dioxide ("fixed air") in water which is
the beginning of the soda-water
industry.
Before this there are only 3 known
gases: air, carbon dioxide and
hydrogen. Priestley identifies 10 new
gases: nitric oxide ((which Priestley
calls) "nitrous air"), nitrogen dioxide
(red nitrous vapour), nitrous oxide
(inflammable nitrous air, later called
"laughing gas"), hydrogen chloride
(marine acid air), ammonia (alkaline
air), sulfur dioxide (vitriolic acid
air), silicon tetrafluoride (fluor acid
air), nitrogen (phlogisticated air),
oxygen (dephlogisticated air,
independently codiscovered by Carl
Wilhelm Scheele), and a gas later
identified as carbon monoxide.
[1] Portrait of Joseph
Priestley Source
http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=h
ttp://www.chemistry.msu.edu/Portraits/im
ages/priestlyc.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www.
chemistry.msu.edu/Portraits/PortraitsHH_
Detail.asp%3FHH_LName%3DPriestley&h=640&
w=462&sz=57&hl=en&start=9&tbnid=ipHldQCy
TukivM:&tbnh=137&tbnw=99&prev=/images%3F
q%3Djoseph%2Bpriestley%26gbv%3D2%26svnum
%3D10%26hl%3Den%26sa%3DG Date
1794 Author Ellen Sharples PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Priestley.jpg
[2] Description Portrait of Joseph
Priestley Source
http://www.search.revolutionaryplayers.
org.uk/engine/resource/default.asp?theme
=47&originator=%2Fengine%2Ftheme%2Fdefau
lt%2Easp&page=3&records=58&direction=1&p
ointer=2784&text=0&resource=4501 Date
c.1763 Author Artist is unknown. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:PriestleyLeeds.jpg
[1772 AD]
1742-1786) isolates oxygen
(independently of Joseph Priestley).
[1] Karl Wilhelm Scheele Library of
Congress PD
source: http://www.answers.com/Karl+Wilh
elm+Scheele+?cat=technology
[2] Chemist Carl Wilhelm Scheele from
Svenska Familj-Journalen 1874. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Carl_Wilhelm_Scheele_from_Familj-Jour
nalen1874.png
[1772 AD]
Daniel Rutherford (CE 1749-1819)
Scottish chemist, (is credited with
being) the first to isolate nitrogen.
[1] Description Scan of an old
picture of Daniel Rutherford Source
The Gases of the Atmosphere (old
book) Date 1896 Author William
Ramsay PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Rutherford_Daniel.jpg
[08/01/1774 AD]
isolates oxygen (independently of Karl
Scheele).
[1] Portrait of Joseph
Priestley Source
http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=h
ttp://www.chemistry.msu.edu/Portraits/im
ages/priestlyc.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www.
chemistry.msu.edu/Portraits/PortraitsHH_
Detail.asp%3FHH_LName%3DPriestley&h=640&
w=462&sz=57&hl=en&start=9&tbnid=ipHldQCy
TukivM:&tbnh=137&tbnw=99&prev=/images%3F
q%3Djoseph%2Bpriestley%26gbv%3D2%26svnum
%3D10%26hl%3Den%26sa%3DG Date
1794 Author Ellen Sharples PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Priestley.jpg
[2] Description Portrait of Joseph
Priestley Source
http://www.search.revolutionaryplayers.
org.uk/engine/resource/default.asp?theme
=47&originator=%2Fengine%2Ftheme%2Fdefau
lt%2Easp&page=3&records=58&direction=1&p
ointer=2784&text=0&resource=4501 Date
c.1763 Author Artist is unknown. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:PriestleyLeeds.jpg
[1774 AD]
1742-1786) isolates chlorine gas.
[1] Karl Wilhelm Scheele Library of
Congress PD
source: http://www.answers.com/Karl+Wilh
elm+Scheele+?cat=technology
[2] Chemist Carl Wilhelm Scheele from
Svenska Familj-Journalen 1874. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Carl_Wilhelm_Scheele_from_Familj-Jour
nalen1874.png
[1774 AD]
1742-1786) studies or isolates for the
first time many organic acids
including: tartaric, citric, benzoic,
oxalic, malic (which he calls "acid of
apples"), and gallic from plant
sources; lactic, mucic and uric from
animal sources; and molybdic and
arsenious acid from mineral sources.
In addition
Scheele studies or isolates for the
first time other organic substances
such as casein, aldehyde, and glycerol.
(need dates for all finds)
Scheele studies copper arsenite which
is called Scheele's green, and a
calcium tungstate mineral that is now
called scheelite.
[1] Karl Wilhelm Scheele Library of
Congress PD
source: http://www.answers.com/Karl+Wilh
elm+Scheele+?cat=technology
[2] Chemist Carl Wilhelm Scheele from
Svenska Familj-Journalen 1874. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Carl_Wilhelm_Scheele_from_Familj-Jour
nalen1874.png
[1774 AD]
with a gas in the air (later named
oxygen).
[1] Creator/Artist Name English:
Jacques-Louis David Alternative names
English: David Date of birth/death
1748-08-30 1825-12-29 Location of
birth/death English: Paris Work
location Title English: Portrait
of Monsieur de Lavoisier and his
Wife Year 1788 Technique English:
Oil on canvas Dimensions 259.7 x 196
cm Current location Metropolitan
Museum of Art New York PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:David_-_Portrait_of_Monsieur_Lavoisie
r_and_His_Wife.jpg
[2] Scientist: Lavoisier, Antoine
Laurent (1743 - 1794) Discipline(s):
Chemistry Print Artist: William G.
Jackman, fl. 1841-1860 Medium:
Engraving Original Artist: Jacques
Louis David, 1744-1825 Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 15.2 x 10.8 cm /
Sheet: 24.7 x 13.9 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=L
[1774 AD]
1745-1818) isolates metallic manganese.
[1] Manganese GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Mangan_1.jpg
[2] Johan Gottlieb Gahn Ljus från
Sverige Född: 1745, Samtida med:
Gustav III, Gustav IV Adolf Nyckelord:
kemist, mangan Död:
1818 PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.bgf.nu/ljus/u/gahn.ht
ml
[07/04/1776 AD]
"Declaration of Independence" from the
Kingdom of Great Britain.
United States)
[1] The original image of the
Declaration of Independence (with
annotations on it) This is a
high-resolution image of the United
States Declaration of Independence
(article
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Us_declaration_independence.jpg
[1778 AD]
- June 26, 1827), invents the "spinning
mule" by combining the Water Frame and
Spinning Jenny.
[1] Samuel Crompton (1753-1827),
English inventor. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Samuel_Crompton.jpg
[1778 AD]
1742-1786) identifies the element
Molybdenum.
[1] Karl Wilhelm Scheele Library of
Congress PD
source: http://www.answers.com/Karl+Wilh
elm+Scheele+?cat=technology
[2] Chemist Carl Wilhelm Scheele from
Svenska Familj-Journalen 1874. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Carl_Wilhelm_Scheele_from_Familj-Jour
nalen1874.png
[1778 AD]
(loVWoZYA) (CE 1743-1794) announces
that air consists of two gases, one
that supports combustion and one which
does not.
[1] Creator/Artist Name English:
Jacques-Louis David Alternative names
English: David Date of birth/death
1748-08-30 1825-12-29 Location of
birth/death English: Paris Work
location Title English: Portrait
of Monsieur de Lavoisier and his
Wife Year 1788 Technique English:
Oil on canvas Dimensions 259.7 x 196
cm Current location Metropolitan
Museum of Art New York PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:David_-_Portrait_of_Monsieur_Lavoisie
r_and_His_Wife.jpg
[2] Scientist: Lavoisier, Antoine
Laurent (1743 - 1794) Discipline(s):
Chemistry Print Artist: William G.
Jackman, fl. 1841-1860 Medium:
Engraving Original Artist: Jacques
Louis David, 1744-1825 Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 15.2 x 10.8 cm /
Sheet: 24.7 x 13.9 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=L
[1779 AD]
1730-1799) describes photosynthesis, by
showing that plants take in carbon
dioxide but only in the light, and in
the dark, plants, like animals give off
carbon dioxide and absorb oxygen.
[1] Jan Ingenhousz PD?
source: http://www.americanchemistry.com
/s_acc/sec_learning.asp?CID=1020&DID=401
6
[2] Ingenhousz, detail of an
engraving BBC Hulton Picture
Library Related Articles: Ingenhousz,
Jan (Encyclop�dia
Britannica) Dutch-born British
physician and scientist who is best
known for his discovery of the process
of photosynthesis, by which green
plants in sunlight absorb carbon
dioxide and release oxygen. To cite
this page: * MLA style:
''Ingenhousz, Jan.'' Online Photograph.
Encyclop�dia Britannica Online. 12
Nov. 2007
PD COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.google.com/imgres?
imgurl=http://cache.eb.com/eb/image%3Fid
%3D10796%26rendTypeId%3D4&imgrefurl=http
://www.britannica.com/ebc/art-11958/Inge
nhousz-detail-of-an-engraving&h=300&w=24
8&sz=20&hl=en&start=6&um=1&tbnid=t9wu82P
uoXVatM:&tbnh=116&tbnw=96&prev=/images%3
Fq%3DJan%2BIngenhousz%26ndsp%3D18%26svnu
m%3D10%26um%3D1%26hl%3Den%26safe%3Doff%2
6sa%3DN
[1779 AD]
(loVWoZYA) (CE 1743-1794) names the gas
that can support combustion "oxygen"
and the gas in the air that does not
support combustion "Azote" (in 1790
renamed Nitrogen by Chaptal)
[1] Creator/Artist Name English:
Jacques-Louis David Alternative names
English: David Date of birth/death
1748-08-30 1825-12-29 Location of
birth/death English: Paris Work
location Title English: Portrait
of Monsieur de Lavoisier and his
Wife Year 1788 Technique English:
Oil on canvas Dimensions 259.7 x 196
cm Current location Metropolitan
Museum of Art New York PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:David_-_Portrait_of_Monsieur_Lavoisie
r_and_His_Wife.jpg
[2] Scientist: Lavoisier, Antoine
Laurent (1743 - 1794) Discipline(s):
Chemistry Print Artist: William G.
Jackman, fl. 1841-1860 Medium:
Engraving Original Artist: Jacques
Louis David, 1744-1825 Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 15.2 x 10.8 cm /
Sheet: 24.7 x 13.9 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=L
[1780 AD]
chemist, improves the oil lamp,
inventing the Argand lamp. The argand
lamp greatly improves on the home
lighting oil lamp of the day, producing
5 to 10 times the light of a candle,
and significantly brighter than the
traditional oil lamp. It has a circular
wick mounted between two cylindrical
metal tubes so that air moves through
the center of the wick, as well as
outside of it. A cylindrical glass
chimney around the wick is used to
steady the flame and to improve the
flow of air. The argand lamp uses
liquid oil. Argand finds that purified
spermaceti (whale) oil is optimal,
though a good grade of olive oil can be
used too. Aside from the improvement in
brightness, the more complete
combustion of the wick and oil requires
much less frequent snuffing (trimming)
of the wick.
The Argand lamp will quickly replace
all other varieties of oil lamps until
about 1850 when kerosene lamps, which
use a flat wick in a cup with a bellied
chimney, are introduced. Kerosene is
considerably cheaper than whale oil,
and many Argand lamps will be converted
to the new form.
In France, these lamps are known as
"Quinquets" named after the man that
copied the design from Argand and
popularized it in France.
[03/13/1781 AD]
identifies the planet Uranus.
[1] Wilhelm Herschel, German-British
astronomer. from fr. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:William_Herschel01.jpg
[2] William Herschel AKA Frederick
William Herschel Born:
15-Nov-1738 Birthplace: Hannover,
Hanover, Germany Died:
25-Aug-1822 Location of death: Slough,
Buckinghamshire, England Cause of
death: unspecified Gender: Male Race
or Ethnicity: White Occupation:
Astronomer Nationality:
England Executive summary: Mapped
heavens, discovered
Uranus PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nndb.com/people/661/0
00096373/
[1781 AD]
credited for inventing the
sun-and-planet gear, which converts the
reciprocating (back and forth) motion
of a steam engine into a rotary motion.
[1] Schematic animation of Watt's sun
and planet gears. The Sun is yellow,
the planet red, the reciprocating crank
is blue, the flywheel is green and the
driveshaft is grey. Notice that the sun
and flywheel rotate twice for every
rotation of the planet. Schematic
animation of Watt's Sun and Planet
gears, drawn by me using Xarax
Emoscopes 03:36, 4 March 2006
(UTC) GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun
_and_planet_gear
[2] William Murdoch, reproduction of a
portrait by John Graham Gilbert in the
City Museum and Art Gallery,
Birmingham. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:William_Murdoch_%281754-1839%29.jpg
[1781 AD]
1740-1784), is the first to show that
the orbit of Hershel's object (Uranus)
is that of a planet and not a comet as
Hershel had thought.
(presumably)
[1] Anders Johan Lexell
(1740-1784) PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.astro.utu.fi/kurssit/
ttpk1/ttpkI/22Suomi.html
[1781 AD]
isolates molybdenum.
[1] Molybdenum sample GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Mo%2C42.jpg
[2] Molybdenum ingot COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.molybdenum.com/molyin
fo/molyinfo.html
[1782 AD]
Scottish engineer patents the
double-acting engine, in which the
piston pushes as well as pulls.
[1] From
http://www.lib.utexas.edu/photodraw/port
raits/index.html, in the public
domain original source: Helmolt, H.F.,
ed. History of the World. New York:
Dodd, Mead and Company, 1902. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:James_Watt.jpg
[2] James Watt, oil painting by H.
Howard; in the National Portrait
Gallery, London. Courtesy of The
National Portrait Gallery, London
PD COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-15159/James-Watt-oil-painting-by-H-Howa
rd-in-the-National?articleTypeId=1
[1782 AD]
1740-1825) identifies the new element
"tellurium".
time)
[1] Image by Daniel Mayer or
GreatPatton and released under terms of
the GNU FDL GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Te-TableImage.png
[2] English: Tellurium sample. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Te%2C52.jpg
[05/26/1783 AD]
understood to change because of
gravity.
[06/04/1783 AD]
empty hot air balloon.
.jpg)
[1] First public demonstration in
Annonay, 1783-06-04. Library of
Congress PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Early_flight_02562u_%282%29.jpg
[2] Jacques Étienne Montgolfier
(1745-1799), inventor of the hot air
balloon. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jacques_%C3%89tienne_Montgolfier.jpg
[07/15/1783 AD]
[1] Model of a steamship, built by
d'Abbans in 1784. Musee de la Marine.
GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:D%27AbbansSteamshipModel.jpg
[08/27/1783 AD]
1746-1823) constructs the first
hydrogen balloon.
.jpg)
[1] First flight by Prof. Jacques
Charles with Ainé Roberts, December 1,
1783. Illustration from the late 19th
Century. N°. 5 - Premier voyage
aérien par Charles et Robert
(1783) First aerial voyage by Charles
and Robert · Erste Flugreise mit
Charles und Robert Library of
Congress PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Early_flight_02562u_%285%29.jpg
[2] Jacques Alexandre César Charles,
1820 Jacques Alexandre César Charles,
French scientist, mathematician, and
balloonist. This image is from the
Library of Congress online collection,
and is in the public domain. It has
been cropped for concision. See catalog
information below. TITLE: Charles,
(Jacques Alexandre César.) né
Beaugency-sur-Loire, le 11 novembre
1746, élu en 1793 / Jul. Bailly,
1820. CALL NUMBER: LOT 13400, no. 22
[P&P] Check for an online group
record (may link to related
items) REPRODUCTION NUMBER:
LC-DIG-ppmsca-02185 (digital file from
original print) LC-USZ62-70373 (b&w
film copy neg.) No known restrictions
on publication. SUMMARY:
Head-and-shoulders portrait of French
balloonist Jacques Alexandre César
Charles, who made the first flight in a
hydrogen balloon, Dec. 1,
1783. MEDIUM: 1 print :
lithograph. CREATED/PUBLISHED: [S.l.
: s.n., 1820] NOTES: ''Institut
royal de France, Académie des sciences
(physique génle.)''--printed above
title. Title from
item. Tissandier
collection. SUBJECTS: Charles,
Jacques Alexandre César, 1746-1823.
Balloonists--French--1820. FORMAT:
Portrait prints 1820. Lithographs
1820. REPOSITORY: Library of
Congress Prints and Photographs
Division Washington, D.C. 20540
USA DIGITAL ID: (digital file from
original print) ppmsca 02185
http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/ppmsca.02185
(b&w film copy neg.) cph 3b17771
http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/cph.3b17771
CARD #: 2002716398 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jacques_Alexandre_C%C3%A9sar_Charles.
jpg
[11/21/1783 AD]
.jpg)
[1] This image is available from the
United States Library of Congress
Prints and Pictures division under the
digital ID ppmsca.02562 The first
untethered balloon flight, by Rosier
and the Marquis d'Arlandes on 21
November 1783. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Early_flight_02562u_%284%29.jpg
[2] REPRODUCTION NUMBER:
LC-DIG-ppmsca-02227 (digital file from
original print) LC-USZ62-15586 (b&w
film copy neg.) No known restrictions
on publication. SUMMARY: Oval
head-and-shoulders portrait of French
balloonist Jean-François Pilâtre de
Rozier, who took the first balloon
flight in 1783. MEDIUM: 1 print :
etching with
engraving. CREATED/PUBLISHED: [S.l.]
: Chez Mr. Pujos, peintre, [between
1783 and 1800] RELATED
NAMES: Pujos, André, 1738-1788,
artist. NOTES: ''Et se trouve
chez Mr. Pujos Peintre, Quai Pelletier
prés la Greve''-- at bottom of
print. Title from
item. Tissandier
collection. SUBJECTS: Pilâtre de
Rozier, Jean-François, 1754-1785.
Balloonists--French--1780-1800. FORMA
T: Portrait prints 1780-1800.
Etchings 1780-1800. REPOSITORY:
Library of Congress Prints and
Photographs Division Washington, D.C.
20540 USA DIGITAL ID: (digital file
from original print) ppmsca 02227
http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/ppmsca.02227
(b&w film copy neg.) cph 3a17830
http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/cph.3a17830
CARD #: 2002724820 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Pilatre_de_Rozier.jpg
[1783 AD]
English iron-maker, invents the
puddling process of iron making. Cort
makes a puddling furnace to create
wrought iron from the pig iron produced
in a blast furnace. Pig iron contains
high amounts of carbon and other
impurities, making it brittle. The
puddling furnace burns off these
impurities to produce a malleable
low-carbon steel or wrought iron.
The furnace is constructed to pull the
hot air over the iron without it coming
into direct contact with the fuel, a
system generally known as a
reverberatory furnace or open-hearth
process. After lighting and being
brought to a low temperature, the
furnace is prepared for use by
"fettling"; painting the grate and
walls around it with iron oxides,
typically hematite. Iron is then placed
on the grate, normally about 600 lbs,
and allowed to melt on top, mixing with
the oxides. The mixture is then stirred
vigorously with a "rabbling-bar", a
long iron rod with a hook formed into
one end. This causes the oxygen from
the oxides to react with impurities in
the pig iron, notably silicon,
manganese (to form slag) and to some
degree sulfur and phosphorus, which
form gases and are removed out the
chimney.
More fuel is then added and the
temperature raised. The iron completely
melts and the carbon starts to burn off
as well. The carbon dioxide formed in
this process causes the slag to "puff
up" on top, giving the rabbler a visual
indication of the progress of the
combustion. As the carbon burns off the
melting temperature of the mixture
rises, so the furnace has to be
continually fed during this process.
Eventually the carbon is mostly burned
off and the iron 'comes to nature',
forming into a spongy plastic material,
indicating that the process is
complete, and the material can be
removed.
The hook on the end of the bar is then
used to pull out large "puddle-balls"
of the material, about 40 kg each.
These are then hammered ('shingled')
using a powered hammer, to expel slag
and weld shut internal cracks, while
breaking off chunks of impurities. The
iron is then re-heated and rolled out
into flat bars or round rods. For this,
grooved rollers are used, the grooves
being of successively descreasing size
so that the bar is progressively
reduced to the desired dimensions. The
quality of this may be improved by
faggoting (a process in which rods or
bars of iron and/or steel are gathered
(like a bundle of sticks or "faggot")
and forge welded together. The faggot
would then be drawn out lengthwise. The
bar might then be broken and the pieces
made into a faggot again or folded
over, and forge welded again).
The puddling furnace will be replaced
with the introduction of the Bessemer
Process, which produces mild steel or
wrought iron for a fraction of the cost
and time. For comparison, an average
size charge for a puddling furnace is
600 lb, for a Bessemer converter it
will be 15 short tons. The puddling
process can not be scaled up, being
limited by the amount that the puddler
can handle. It can only be expanded by
building more furnaces.
[1] Schematic drawing of a puddling
furnace. A, the hearth; F. the grate
or fireplace; C, the chimney with a
damper at the summit to regulate the
draught; D, a bridge separating the
grate from the hearth, for preventing
the direct contact of the fuel with the
iron. Found on the web at
http://www.mspong.org/cyclopedia/metallu
rgy_pics.html Scanned from The
Household Cyclopedia by Henry
Hartshorne, 1881. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Puddling_furnace.jpg
[1783 AD]
English chemist and physicist, is the
first to measure the weight of
particular volumes of gas to determine
their density. (Show how Cavendish does
this) He finds Hydrogen to be very
light with only 1/14 the density of
air. The lightness and flammability of
Hydrogen makes Cavendish think he found
Stahl's phlogiston a view which Scheele
will adopt.
[1] Henry Cavendish Henry
CavendishBorn: 10-Oct-1731 Birthplace:
Nice, France Died:
24-Feb-1810 Location of death:
Clapham, England PD?
source: http://www.nndb.com/people/030/0
00083778/
[2] Old picture from F. Moore's
History of Chemistry, published in
1901 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Cavendish_Henry.jpg
[1783 AD]
understands that the Sun is moving
towards the constellation Hercules.
[1] Wilhelm Herschel, German-British
astronomer. from fr. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:William_Herschel01.jpg
[2] William Herschel AKA Frederick
William Herschel Born:
15-Nov-1738 Birthplace: Hannover,
Hanover, Germany Died:
25-Aug-1822 Location of death: Slough,
Buckinghamshire, England Cause of
death: unspecified Gender: Male Race
or Ethnicity: White Occupation:
Astronomer Nationality:
England Executive summary: Mapped
heavens, discovered
Uranus PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nndb.com/people/661/0
00096373/
[1783 AD]
(loVWoZYA) (CE 1743-1794) names
Cavendish's inflammable gas "Hydrogen".
[1] Creator/Artist Name English:
Jacques-Louis David Alternative names
English: David Date of birth/death
1748-08-30 1825-12-29 Location of
birth/death English: Paris Work
location Title English: Portrait
of Monsieur de Lavoisier and his
Wife Year 1788 Technique English:
Oil on canvas Dimensions 259.7 x 196
cm Current location Metropolitan
Museum of Art New York PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:David_-_Portrait_of_Monsieur_Lavoisie
r_and_His_Wife.jpg
[2] Scientist: Lavoisier, Antoine
Laurent (1743 - 1794) Discipline(s):
Chemistry Print Artist: William G.
Jackman, fl. 1841-1860 Medium:
Engraving Original Artist: Jacques
Louis David, 1744-1825 Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 15.2 x 10.8 cm /
Sheet: 24.7 x 13.9 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=L
[1783 AD]
1755-1833) with his brother Juan José
D'elhuyar, isolate tungsten (also known
as wolfram).
[1] Fausto Elhuyarren urteurrena
(1755-1833) PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.zientzia.net/argazkik
onts.asp?Artik_kod=3751
[2] FAUSTO FERMÍN DE ELHUYAR
(1757-1833) PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.minas.upm.es/inicio/M
useo%20Historico/Ingles/history.htm
[01/15/1784 AD]
an element. Larger molecule formed by
joining two smaller molecules with
electricity. Water is synthesized by
using an electric spark in hydrogen and
oxygen gases.
Henry Cavendish (CE
1731-1810) is the first to show that
water is created from burning hydrogen
gas in oxygen gas.
[1] Henry Cavendish Henry
CavendishBorn: 10-Oct-1731 Birthplace:
Nice, France Died:
24-Feb-1810 Location of death:
Clapham, England PD?
source: http://www.nndb.com/people/030/0
00083778/
[2] Old picture from F. Moore's
History of Chemistry, published in
1901 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Cavendish_Henry.jpg
[02/17/1785 AD]
with wires).
[1] David Rittenhouse from an original
Picture in the possession of Mrs.
Sergeant. PD/Corel
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=_J8RAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=dav
id+rittenhouse#PPP6,M1
[04/??/1785 AD]
publishes a catalog with 1000
(previously unknown) "nebulae"
(galaxies) and star clusters.
This enlarges the map of the known
universe.
[1] Wilhelm Herschel, German-British
astronomer. from fr. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:William_Herschel01.jpg
[2] William Herschel AKA Frederick
William Herschel Born:
15-Nov-1738 Birthplace: Hannover,
Hanover, Germany Died:
25-Aug-1822 Location of death: Slough,
Buckinghamshire, England Cause of
death: unspecified Gender: Male Race
or Ethnicity: White Occupation:
Astronomer Nationality:
England Executive summary: Mapped
heavens, discovered
Uranus PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nndb.com/people/661/0
00096373/
[06/02/1785 AD]
gases, and not a single element.
Henry Cavendish (CE 1731-1810) shows,
by sparking air to make nitric acid,
that air is a mixture of gases, not a
single element as was thought.
Cavendish is the first to recognize
that air is composed of around 4 parts
nitrogen (at the time called
"phlogisticated air") to 1 part oxygen
(at the time called "dephlogisticated
air").
[1] Figures 1-3 from: Henry
Cavendish, ''Experiments on Air.'',
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London (1776-1886), Volume
75 - 1785, 372-384 Henry Cavendish,
''Experiments On Air'', Philosophical
Transactions, Vol 74, 1784,
pp119-153. http://books.google.com/book
s?id=-uEKAAAAIAAJ PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=-uEKAAAAIAAJ
[2] Figure from Experiments on Air.
By Henry Cavendish, Esq. F.R.S. and
A.S. Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 75 -
1785 Pages 372-384 DOI 10.1098/rstl.17
85.0023 PD?
source: http://www.journals.royalsoc.ac.
uk/content/002m322p050qv423/?p=d80161c90
5fe4831aa63484ba66ccb98&pi=6
[1785 AD]
Cartwright (April 24, 1743 - October
30, 1823). The power loom automates the
cloth making process and allows large
amounts of cloth to be made in a
shorter time than can be made by human
labor.
[1] Edmund Cartwright (1743-1823),
English inventor. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Edmund_Cartwright_2.jpg
[2] Some of the 1200 power looms at
the Plevna factory building, completed
in 1877, at the Finlayson & Co Cotton
mills in Tampere, Finland source:
http://www.finlayson.fi/kodintekstiilit/
histo07.htm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Finlayson_%26_Co_-_Plevna_1877.jpg
[1785 AD]
and John Stringfellow (1799-1883)
invent a steam-engine powered airplane
(Aerial Steam Carriage). This design
can not fly, but an improved design in
1848 will be able to fly for small
distances within a hanger. This is the
first device built to use machine
powered flight.
[1] William Samuel Henson and the
Aerial Transit Company's publicity
engraving of the ''Aerial Steam
Carriage'' of 1843. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Henson-Willliam_02.jpg
[2] Patent drawing for the Henson
Aerial Steam Carriage of 1843. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Henson-Willliam_03.jpg
[1785 AD]
Scottish geologist puts forward the
"uniformitarian principle", the theory
that slow changes change the earth's
surface.
[1] JAMES HUTTON (1726-1797) PD
source: http://www.uwmc.uwc.edu/geograph
y/hutton/hutton.htm
[2]
http://www.usgs.gov/museum/575005.html
James Hutton(1726-1797) is considered
to be the founder of modern Geology.
His studies of the rock formations of
his native Scotland helped him to
formulate his most famous work,
''Theory of the Earth''. This work was
interpreted and used by many as the
basis for geological theory. Hutton
made many observations about rock
formations and how they were effected
by erosion. His terminology and rock
formation theories became known as
''Huttonian'' Geology. Several of the
watercolors on this page are
reproductions of works that he did
while in the field. This portrait of
him was done by Abner Lowe in the
1920s. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:James_Hutton.jpg
[1785 AD]
(CE 1736-1806) proves that electrical
and magnetic attraction and repulsion
are both inversely related to distance
squared.
This will eventually lead to the famous
equation now called Coulomb's law:
F=kq1q2/r^
2 (state who is the first to formally
state this equation)
Coulomb finds that the force between
electrical and magnetic objects is
identical, a strong indication that a
magnetic field is actually just an
electrical field. However Coulomb
maintains that the electrical and
magnetic fluids are not identical. I
think that this is strong evidence that
a magnetic field is simply an
electrical field, which implies that in
every permanent magnet has a current of
particles which creates an electric
field running through it.
[1] Portrait by Hippolyte Lecomte PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Coulomb.jpg
[2] Charles-Augustin de Coulomb,
detail of a bronze bust. H.
Roger-Viollet COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-9659/Charles-Augustin-de-Coulomb-detail
-of-a-bronze-bust?articleTypeId=1
[1785 AD]
1736-1806) shows that electric and
magnetic attraction and repulsion are
both proportional to amount of charge
and inversely proportional to distance
squared.
[1] Portrait by Hippolyte Lecomte PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Coulomb.jpg
[2] Charles-Augustin de Coulomb,
detail of a bronze bust. H.
Roger-Viollet COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-9659/Charles-Augustin-de-Coulomb-detail
-of-a-bronze-bust?articleTypeId=1
[1786 AD]
modern spelling, threshing machine, is
invented by Scottish mechanical
engineer Andrew Meikle (1719 - November
27, 1811). The threshing machine is
used to separate the seeds (or grains)
of cereal plants from their stalks and
outer husks. For thousands of years,
grain was separated by hand with flails
(two or more sticks attached by a short
chain or leather thong; one stick is
held and swung, causing the other to
strike a pile of grain, loosening the
husks), and was very laborious and time
consuming. Mechanization of this
process will increase the speed and
quantity of production, in addition to
lowering the cost.
Early threshing
machines are hand fed and horse
powered. They are small by today's
standards and are about the size of an
upright piano.
Although threshing removes the
straw and the chaff (seed casing and
other inedible materials of a plant),
it does not remove the bran (Bran is
the hard outer layer of cereal grains,
and consists of combined aleurone and
pericarp. Along with germ (the embyro
of the seed), it is an integral part of
whole grains, and is often produced as
a by-product of milling in the
production of refined grains. When bran
is removed from grains, they lose a
portion of their nutritional value.
Bran is present in and may be milled
from any cereal grain, including rice,
wheat, maize, oats, and millet.).
Kingdom
[1] Threshing machine from
1881 Source: cropped from
http://www.unige.ch/lareh/Archives/Archi
ves-images/Images/Dictionnaire-arts-indu
striels/Page%20585%20-%20batteuse.jpg 1
881 Dictionnaire d'arts industriels. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Batteuse_1881.jpg
[2] Flail PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Dreschflegel.jpg
[08/27/1787 AD]
(soRL) (CE 1746-1823) states that the
volume of a fixed quantity of gas at
constant pressure is inversely
proportional to its temperature
(Charles' law).
[1] Jacques Alexandre César Charles,
1820 Jacques Alexandre César Charles,
French scientist, mathematician, and
balloonist. This image is from the
Library of Congress online collection,
and is in the public domain. It has
been cropped for concision. See catalog
information below. TITLE: Charles,
(Jacques Alexandre César.) né
Beaugency-sur-Loire, le 11 novembre
1746, élu en 1793 / Jul. Bailly,
1820. CALL NUMBER: LOT 13400, no. 22
[P&P] Check for an online group
record (may link to related
items) REPRODUCTION NUMBER:
LC-DIG-ppmsca-02185 (digital file from
original print) LC-USZ62-70373 (b&w
film copy neg.) No known restrictions
on publication. SUMMARY:
Head-and-shoulders portrait of French
balloonist Jacques Alexandre César
Charles, who made the first flight in a
hydrogen balloon, Dec. 1,
1783. MEDIUM: 1 print :
lithograph. CREATED/PUBLISHED: [S.l.
: s.n., 1820] NOTES: ''Institut
royal de France, Académie des sciences
(physique génle.)''--printed above
title. Title from
item. Tissandier
collection. SUBJECTS: Charles,
Jacques Alexandre César, 1746-1823.
Balloonists--French--1820. FORMAT:
Portrait prints 1820. Lithographs
1820. REPOSITORY: Library of
Congress Prints and Photographs
Division Washington, D.C. 20540
USA DIGITAL ID: (digital file from
original print) ppmsca 02185
http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/ppmsca.02185
(b&w film copy neg.) cph 3b17771
http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/cph.3b17771
CARD #: 2002716398 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jacques_Alexandre_C%C3%A9sar_Charles.
jpg
[2] First flight by Prof. Jacques
Charles with Ainé Roberts, December 1,
1783. Illustration from the late 19th
Century. N°. 5 - Premier voyage
aérien par Charles et Robert
(1783) First aerial voyage by Charles
and Robert · Erste Flugreise mit
Charles und Robert Library of
Congress PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Early_flight_02562u_%285%29.jpg
[1787 AD]
identifies two moons of Uranus, Titania
and Oberon.
[1] Wilhelm Herschel, German-British
astronomer. from fr. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:William_Herschel01.jpg
[2] William Herschel AKA Frederick
William Herschel Born:
15-Nov-1738 Birthplace: Hannover,
Hanover, Germany Died:
25-Aug-1822 Location of death: Slough,
Buckinghamshire, England Cause of
death: unspecified Gender: Male Race
or Ethnicity: White Occupation:
Astronomer Nationality:
England Executive summary: Mapped
heavens, discovered
Uranus PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nndb.com/people/661/0
00096373/
[06/21/1788 AD]
ratified by 9 of 13 states and the
United States Government is formed, a
representative democracy, won after an
8 year war against the Kingdom of Great
Britain (a Parliamentary Monarchy).
This is the first major representative
democracy not ruled by any hereditary
king of planet earth.
[1] First page of Constitution of the
United States. Source
http://www.archives.gov/national-archiv
es-experience/charters/charters_download
s.html Date 1787 Author
Constitutional Convention PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Constitution_Pg1of4_AC.jpg
[2] Scene at the Signing of the
Constitution of the United States The
Philadelphia Convention PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Scene_Constitution.jpg
[08/28/1789 AD]
construction of the largest telescope
on earth and identifies two new
satellites of Saturn, Enceladus and
Mimas for a total of 7 moons for
Saturn.
[1] Wilhelm Herschel, German-British
astronomer. from fr. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:William_Herschel01.jpg
[2] William Herschel AKA Frederick
William Herschel Born:
15-Nov-1738 Birthplace: Hannover,
Hanover, Germany Died:
25-Aug-1822 Location of death: Slough,
Buckinghamshire, England Cause of
death: unspecified Gender: Male Race
or Ethnicity: White Occupation:
Astronomer Nationality:
England Executive summary: Mapped
heavens, discovered
Uranus PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nndb.com/people/661/0
00096373/
[1789 AD]
(KloPrOT) (CE 1743-1817) identifies the
element Uranium.
(presumably)
[1] # Title: Martin Heinrich
Klaproth # Author:Ambroise Tardieu
(engraving) after original portrait by
Eberhard-Siegfried Henne # Year:
unknown # Source:
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollections
/hst/scientific-identity/explore.htm
(reworked) Scientist: Klapproth,
Martin Heinrich (1743 -
1817) Discipline(s): Chemistry Print
Artist: Ambroise Tardieu, 1788-1841
Medium: Engraving Original Artist:
Eberhard-Siegfried Henne, 1759-1828
Original Dimensions: Graphic: 7.5 x
10.3 cm / Sheet: 21.2 x 14.3 cm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Martin_Heinrich_Klaproth.jpg
[2] Scientist: Klapproth, Martin
Heinrich (1743 - 1817) Discipline(s):
Chemistry Original Artist:
Eberhard-Siegfried Henne, 1759-1828
Original Dimensions: Graphic: 10.7 x
9.2 cm / Sheet: 14.9 x 9.2 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=K
[1789 AD]
(KloPrOT) (CE 1743-1817) identifies the
element "zirconium".
(presumably)
[1] Zircon crystal Origin:Peixes,
Goiás, Brazil Description = One
single brown zircon crystal (2x2
cm) Source = the authors are
owner Date = created
2005-12-07 Authors = Eurico Zimbres
(FGEL-UERJ) / Tom Epaminondas (mineral
collector) Permission = Free for all
use CC
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Zirc%C3%A3o.jpeg
[2] # Title: Martin Heinrich
Klaproth # Author:Ambroise Tardieu
(engraving) after original portrait by
Eberhard-Siegfried Henne # Year:
unknown # Source:
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollections
/hst/scientific-identity/explore.htm
(reworked) Scientist: Klapproth,
Martin Heinrich (1743 -
1817) Discipline(s): Chemistry Print
Artist: Ambroise Tardieu, 1788-1841
Medium: Engraving Original Artist:
Eberhard-Siegfried Henne, 1759-1828
Original Dimensions: Graphic: 7.5 x
10.3 cm / Sheet: 21.2 x 14.3 cm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Martin_Heinrich_Klaproth.jpg
[1790 AD]
1724-1793) English geologist and
astronomer, constructs a torsion
balance to measure gravitational
attraction and therefore the (mass) of
the Earth.
Henry Cavendish (1731-1810), will use
the device John Michell, in his famous
experiment to measure gravity between
two test masses.
Michell invents a torsion
balance similar to and independently of
the torsion balance that the French
physicist Charles-Augustin de Coulomb
will invent.
(presumably)
[05/03/1791 AD]
first modern constitution in Europe,
transforming the nation of Poland into
a constitutional parliamentary
monarchy. In this Constitution,
Dynasties must be elected, and
discrimination on religious grounds is
abolished.
[1] May 3rd Constitution (painting by
Jan Matejko, 1891). King Stanisław
August (left, in ermine-trimmed cloak),
enters St. John's Cathedral, where Sejm
deputies will swear to uphold the new
Constitution; in the background,
Warsaw's Royal Castle, where the
Constitution had just been
adopted. Painting by Jan Matejko from
1891 Source:
en:Image:Konstytucja_3_Maja.jpg;
originally at
http://pl.wikipedia.org/upload/3/3c/Ko
nstytucja_3_Maja.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Konstytucja_3_Maja.jpg
[2] Original manuscript of the May 3rd
Constitution. PD with source
statement: Source:
http://www.president.pl/x.node?id=404274
5
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Oryginal_Konstytucji_3_maja.jpg
[12/15/1791 AD]
10 amendments to the United States
Constitution guarantees many human
rights including freedom of religion,
speech, the press, the right of
peaceful assembly and petition, and the
prohibition of "cruel and unusual
punishments".
[1791 AD]
neuron writing). Muscle contracted
remotely by using an electric spark and
metal connected to a nerve.
Galvani makes an electric pendulum
using a frog leg, brass hook and silver
box.
Imagine Galvani's scalpel reduced in
size to the size of a dust fiber, about
1 micrometer, and capable of photon
communication can can be swallowed or
even breathed in, and then remotely
communicated with, and moved around
inside a body, made to activate a
neuron, or to attach to a bacterium,
perhaps to enter a cell and function as
the first human-made cellular
organelle.
[1] Italian physicists Luigi
Galvani Source
http://www.museopalazzopoggi.unibo.it
//poggi_eng/palazzo/foto/prot Date
18-19 th century Author
Unknown PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Luigi_Galvani%2C_oil-painting.jpg
[2] The electrochemical behavior of
two dissimilar metals [(zinc (Z) and
copper (C)] in a bimetallic arch, in
contact with the electrolytes of
tissue, produces an electric
stimulating current that elicits
muscular contraction. [Malmivuo, J., &
Plonsey, R. (1995).
Bioelectromagnatism: Principles and
applications of bioelectric and
biomagnetic fields. New York: Oxford
University Press., Ch.1] URL:
http://butler.cc.tut.fi/~malmivuo/bem/be
mbook/01/01.htm Diagram of Luigi
Galvani's frog legs (~1770s) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Galvani%27s_legs.gif
[1791 AD]
identifies titanium.
[1] In 1791, while studying ilmenite
from the Manaccan valley, he isolated
the calx of an unknown metal which he
named manaccanite.[3 wiki] *
Italiano: Ilmenite, dall'Italia. Foto
di Sebastian Socha, 2006. *
Polski: Ilmenit, pochodzenie Włochy;
autor zdjęcia Sebastian Socha. 11.10.
2006 r. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ilmenit%2C_W%C5%82ochy.jpg
[09/21/1792 AD]
ends the monarchy and establishes a
republic in France.
[1] Sketch by Jacques-Louis David of
the National Assembly taking the Tennis
Court Oath David, le serment du Jeu de
Paume. Tennis Court Oath. Painting by
Jacques-Louis David (1748-1825) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Serment_du_jeu_de_paume.jpg
[2] The storming of the Bastille, 14
July 1789 Painting by Jean-Pierre
Houël (1735-1813), entitled Prise de
la Bastille (''The Storming of the
Bastille''). Watercolor painting; 37,8
x 50,5 cm. Published 1789. Visible in
the center is the arrest of Bernard
René Jourdan, marquis de Launay
(1740-1789). PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Prise_de_la_Bastille.jpg
[1794 AD]
first rare earth (Lanthanoid) element.
[1] Gadolinite The mineral that
Gadolin examined was named gadolinite
in
1800.[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johan
_Gadolin] GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Gadolinitas.jpg
[2] Portrait of Johan Gadolin
(1760-1852). Scanned from the book
Johan Gadolin 1760-1852 in memoriam
(published in 1910). Artist unknown but
most probably born many years before
1852, so the copyright has
expired. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Johan_Gadolin.jpg
[1795 AD]
selection before Charles Darwin,
writing that species less adapted are
more like to die while those better
adapted will continue.
[1] JAMES HUTTON (1726-1797) PD
source: http://www.uwmc.uwc.edu/geograph
y/hutton/hutton.htm
[2]
http://www.usgs.gov/museum/575005.html
James Hutton(1726-1797) is considered
to be the founder of modern Geology.
His studies of the rock formations of
his native Scotland helped him to
formulate his most famous work,
''Theory of the Earth''. This work was
interpreted and used by many as the
basis for geological theory. Hutton
made many observations about rock
formations and how they were effected
by erosion. His terminology and rock
formation theories became known as
''Huttonian'' Geology. Several of the
watercolors on this page are
reproductions of works that he did
while in the field. This portrait of
him was done by Abner Lowe in the
1920s. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:James_Hutton.jpg
[07/01/1796 AD]
Edward Jenner (CE 1749-1823), English
physician, confirms that having cow pox
disease provide immunity from the more
severe small pox disease.
[1] Source:
http://www.edward-jenner.com/family-life
.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Edward_Jenner2.jpg
[2] Figure 1: Portrait of Edward
Jenner painted in about 1800 by William
Pearce. Note the cows in the
background, the source of the cowpox
virus he used to vaccinate people
against smallpox. PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://openlearn.open.ac.uk/file
.php/2642/formats/S320_1_rss.xml
[1797 AD]
produces marble by heating limestone
(calcium carbonate).
[1] Sir James Hall, Scottish chemist
and geologist, late 18th
century. Photo of Sir James Hall,
Scottish chemist and geologist, late
18th century. Oil painting by
Angelica Kauffman of Sir James Hall
(1761-1832), 4th Baronet of Dunglass.
Hall discovered that by heating calcium
carbonate under pressure a rock
substance similar to marble is formed.
His work on the creation of rocks also
proved that igneous rocks in Scotland
had been produced under
heat. Picture Reference:
10301789 Subject: PERSONALITIES >
Personalities > Hall, James'' Credit:
Science Museum PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.scienceandsociety.co.
uk/results.asp?image=10301789&wwwflag=2&
imagepos=1
[1797 AD]
(CE 1763-1829), identifies Chromium.
[1] Chrom Source
http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bild:Chr
om_1.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Chrom_1.jpg
[2] Louis Nicolas Vauquelin from
en:Wikipedia PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Louis_Nicolas_Vauquelin.jpg
[06/02/1798 AD]
Egypt.
[07/25/1798 AD]
[1798 AD]
the mass, and density of the Earth is
measured.
[1] Henry Cavendish Henry
CavendishBorn: 10-Oct-1731 Birthplace:
Nice, France Died:
24-Feb-1810 Location of death:
Clapham, England PD?
source: http://www.nndb.com/people/030/0
00083778/
[2] Old picture from F. Moore's
History of Chemistry, published in
1901 PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Caven
dish_Henry.jpg
[1798 AD]
(CE 1763-1829), identifies beryllium.
[1] Louis Nicolas Vauquelin from
en:Wikipedia PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Louis_Nicolas_Vauquelin.jpg
[2] Portrait de Vauquelin situé dans
la Salle des actes de la Faculté de
pharmacie, 4 avenue de l'Observatoire
à Paris PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://euromin.w3sites.net/Nouve
au_site/mineralogiste/biographies/Vauque
linf.htm
[1798 AD]
invents lithography which a printing
process based on the inability of oil
and water to mix.
[1] Two pictures showing the negative
litography stone and the resulting
positive print, with an old map of
Munich. This is the origin map, with
the north tower of the Frauenkirche in
the lower corner. All other maps of
this series are referenced to this
corner. The map also shows the
Hofgarten and the Englischer Garten.
Due to the nature of the printing
process, the negative shows everything
in reverse. Picture taken as part of
the Lange Nacht der Museen in
Munich See also Image:Litography print
of a Map of Munich.jpg and
Image:Litography stone of a Map of
Munich.jpg for the original images GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Litography_negative_stone_and_positiv
e_paper.jpg
[2] Description Lithograph,
'Portrait of Senefelder'. Lithograph
of Senefelder, from Specimens of
Polyautography. Source
http://www.nga.gov.au/FirstImpression
s/index.cfm [1] Date 1818 Author
Lorenz Quaglio. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Senefelder.jpg
[08/??/1799 AD]
Egypt.
[1799 AD]
1754-1826) shows that elements combine
in definite proportions.
[1] Joseph Proust French
chemist Source Originally from
en.wikipedia; description page is/was
here. Date 2005-10-15 (original
upload date) Author Original
uploader was HappyApple at
en.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
image) PD-AUTHOR; Released into the
public domain (by the author). PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Proust_joseph.jpg
[2] Joseph-Louis Proust, medallion by
Pierre-Jean David H. Roger-Viollet To
cite this page: * MLA style:
''Proust, Joseph-Louis: portrait
coin.'' Online Photograph.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 13
Dec. 2007
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-30847/Joseph-Louis-Proust-medallion-by-
Pierre-Jean-David?articleTypeId=1
[03/20/1800 AD]
1745-1827) builds an electric battery.
[1] Description Alessandro Giuseppe
Antonio Anastasio Volta Source
http://www.anthroposophie.net/bibliot
hek/nawi/physik/volta/bib_volta.htm Dat
e 2006-03-02 (original upload
date) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Alessandro_Volta.jpeg
[2] Scientist: Volta, Alessandro
(1745 - 1827) Discipline(s):
Physics Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 11.9 x 9.7 cm / Sheet: 18.2 x
12.3 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=V
[03/27/1800 AD]
William Herschel (CE 1738-1822)
recognizes that an invisible portion of
the spectrum of light beyond the color
red (later named infrared) heats up a
thermometer more than any other color.
[1] William Herschel, ''Investigation
of the Powers of the Prismatic Colours
to Heat and Illuminate Objects; With
Remarks, That Prove the Different
Refrangibility of Radiant Heat. To
Which is Added, an Inquiry into the
Method of Viewing the Sun
Advantageously, with Telescopes of
Large Apertures and High Magnifying
Powers.'', Philosophical Transactions
of the Royal Society of London , Vol.
90, (1800), pp. 255-283.
books.google.com/books?id=dlFFAAAAcAAJ
&pg=PA255 PD
source: books.google.com/books?id=dlFFAA
AAcAAJ&pg=PA255
[2] Description Wilhelm Herschel,
German-British
astronomer. Date 1785 Source Nat
ional Portrait Gallery, London: NPG
98 Author Lemuel Francis Abbott PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/36/William_Herschel01.jp
g
[05/02/1800 AD]
using electricity. Water divided into
hydrogen and oxygen.
William Nicholson (CE 1753-1815)
separates water into hydrogen and
oxygen gas using electric current.
[1] William Nicholson, ca. 1812,
engraving by T. Blood after a portrait
painted by Samuel Drummond
(1765-1844) PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/histor
y/nicholson.html
[2] The example of Nicholson's
Hydrometer at the right is 25 cm
high, and is in the Greenslade
Collection. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://physics.kenyon.edu/EarlyA
pparatus/Fluids/Nicholsons_Hydrometer/Ni
cholsons_Hydrometer.html
[09/17/1800 AD]
1776-1810) collects the hydrogen and
oxygen gas from electrolysis of water
separately.
Johann Wilhelm Ritter (CE 1776-1810),
German physicist, improves on the
electrolysis of water by creating a
device that collects the hydrogen and
oxygen gases separately over the
electrodes in water.
Within months of Volta's first battery
in 1800, Nicholson uses electric
current to separate water into hydrogen
and oxygen. Later that year, Ritter is
the first to collect the hydrogen and
oxygen gas over the electrodes when
electricity from a battery flowing
through water separates the water into
hydrogen and oxygen gas (electrolysis).
(I think this is one of the coolest
experiments of all time)
This raises the question: how can
oxygen and hydrogen move through water
and appear on opposite electrodes?
(State publication)
[1] Undatiertes Portrait von J. W.
Ritter PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www2.uni-jena.de/biologie
/ehh/forum/ausstellungen/Physik_als_Kuns
t/Physik_als_Kunst.htm
[2] Johann Wilhelm Ritter. Undated
woodcut, courtesy Deutsches Museum,
Munich. Reproduced in Ritter
1986. PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/silpublica
tions/dibner-library-lectures/scientific
-discoveries/text-lecture.htm
[11/??/1800 AD]
1776-1810) discovers electroplating.
[1] Undatiertes Portrait von J. W.
Ritter PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www2.uni-jena.de/biologie
/ehh/forum/ausstellungen/Physik_als_Kuns
t/Physik_als_Kunst.htm
[2] Johann Wilhelm Ritter. Undated
woodcut, courtesy Deutsches Museum,
Munich. Reproduced in Ritter
1986. PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/silpublica
tions/dibner-library-lectures/scientific
-discoveries/text-lecture.htm
[1800 AD]
invented.
[1800 AD]
communication (radio) invented but kept
secret. Radio transmitter and receiver
invented.
[11/12/1801 AD]
determines frequencies and wavelengths
(or particle intervals) of light, uses
glass diffraction gratings, and puts
forward a theory of light
interference.
Young puts forward the theory of light
wave interference (to explain lines of
diffraction). This theory states that
two (or more) light waves interfere
with each other, where light waves can
add together and subtract or cancel
each other out, similar to the way two
sound waves can add to or cancel each
other out to produce silence.
Young supports the theory of light as a
wave in an aether medium (aether being
like air for sound), and refers to this
theory as the "undulatory" theory.
[1] [t Table of light wavelengths and
frequencies calculated by Young from
Theory of Light and Colours
11/12/1801] The inch used in the table
is the French (Paris) inch of
27.07mm. PD/Corel
source: Young_Thomas_1802_on_the_theory_
of_light_and_colours.pdf
[2]
http://journals.royalsociety.org/content
/q3r7063hh2281211/?p=422e575bae414c9a974
a16d595c628d0π=24 The Bakerian
Lecture: On the Theory of Light and
Colours Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 92 -
1802 Pages 12-48 DOI 10.1098/rstl.1802
.0004 Young_Thomas_1802_on_the_theory_o
f_light_and_colours.pdf [t Young
writes: ''Let the concentric lines in
Fig. 1 (Plate I.) represent the
contemporaneous situation of similar
parts of a number of successive
undulations diverging from the point A;
they will also represent the successive
situations of each individual
undulation: let the force of each
undulation be represented by the
breadth of the line, and let the cone
of light ABC be admitted through the
apeture BC; then the principal
undulations will proceed in a
recilinear direction towards GH, and
the faint radiations on each side will
diverge from B and C as centres,
without receiving any additional force
from any intermediate point D of the
undulation, on account of the
inequality of the lines DE and DF. But
if we allow some little lateral
divergence from the extremities of the
undulations, it must diminish their
force, without adding materially to
that of the dissipated light; and their
termination, instead of the right line
BG, will assume the form CH; since the
loss of force must be more considerable
near to C than at greater distances.
This line corresponds with the boundary
of the shadow in NEWTON's first
observation, Fig. 1; and it is much
more probable that such a dissipation
of light was the cause of the increase
of the shadow in that observation, than
that it was owing to the action of the
inflecting atmosphere, which must have
extended a thirtieth of an inch each
way in order to produce it; especially
when it is considered that the shadow
was not diminished by surrounding the
hair with a denser medium than air,
which must in all probability have
weakened and contracted its inflecting
atmosphere. In other circumstances, the
lateral divergence might appear to
increase, instead of diminishing, the
breadth of the
beam.''] PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://journals.royalsociety.org
/content/q3r7063hh2281211/?p=422e575bae4
14c9a974a16d595c628d0π=24
[1801 AD]
(CE 1764-1849) identifies vanadium.
[1] Andrés Manuel del Río
(1764-1849), Spanish-Mexican geologist
and chemist. This image is a picture of
an oil painting dated from the XIX
century. The Painting is on public
display at the Palacio de Minería in
Mexico City. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Del_Rio.jpg
[2] Vanadium is not found in the
native state, but is present in
minerals such as vanadinite,
Pb5(VO4)3Cl. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Vanadinita_Mibladen%2C_Midelt_Marruec
os.png
[1801 AD]
identifies the new element Niobium.
[1] Image of chemist en:Charles
Hatchett PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Charles_Hatchett.jpg
[2] Ferrocolumbite Photo Copyright ©
Keith Compton - This image is
copyrighted. Unauthorized reproduction
prohibited. Locality: Giles
Columbite-Beryl Pegmatite (Giles
Prospect), Spargoville, Coolgardie
Shire, Western Australia,
Australia Single black terminated
Ferrocolumbite xl. 36mm x 25mm x
14mm Personal collection and
photo. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.mindat.org/min-1514.h
tml
[1801 AD]
1776-1810) identifies ultraviolet
light.
[1] Undatiertes Portrait von J. W.
Ritter PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www2.uni-jena.de/biologie
/ehh/forum/ausstellungen/Physik_als_Kuns
t/Physik_als_Kunst.htm
[2] Johann Wilhelm Ritter. Undated
woodcut, courtesy Deutsches Museum,
Munich. Reproduced in Ritter
1986. PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/silpublica
tions/dibner-library-lectures/scientific
-discoveries/text-lecture.htm
[1801 AD]
transmitter invented but kept secret.
This device uses light particles to
transmit images to distant receivers.
At first this is a simple one sensor
light dark device. But soon, arrays of
sensors, with more and more sensors,
smaller and smaller in size are
developed - all secretly for a small
group of wealthy people of each nation.
[03/??/1802 AD]
(CE 1758-1840), finds the second known
minor planet (asteroid) Pallas.
[1] Heinrich Wilhelm Matthäus Olbers
(October 11, 1758 - March 2, 1840) was
a German astronomer, physician and
physicist. Source
http://web4.si.edu/sil/scientific-ide
ntity/display_results.cfm?alpha_sort=W
PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Heinrich_Wilhelm_Olbers.jpg
[2] Olbers, detail from an
engraving Courtesy of the trustees of
the British Museum; photograph, J.R.
Freeman & Co. Ltd. PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-30472/Olbers-detail-from-an-engraving?a
rticleTypeId=1
[08/03/1802 AD]
1761-1835) publishes a finding of an
electric effect deflecting a magnetic
needle.
[1] Description Portrait of Gian
Domenico Romagnosi, by painter: E.
Moscatelli (copy of Giuseppe Molteni's
painting); Museo del Risorgimento
(Milan). PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Romag
nosi.jpg
[2] Gian Domenico Romagnosi from Cantu
1861 PD/Corel
source: http://ppp.unipv.it/Collana/Page
s/Libri/Saggi/Nuova%20Voltiana3_PDF/cap4
/4.pdf * Romagnosi and Volta"s
pile: Early difficulties in the
interpretation of voltaic
electricity romagnosi_4.pdf
[1802 AD]
(CE 1766-1828) identifies spectral
lines.
[1] William Wollaston Fiure 3 from
1802 Philosophical
Transactions PD/Corel
source: Wollaston_William_1802_PT.pdf
[2] Scientist: Wollaston, William
Hyde (1766 - 1878) Discipline(s):
Chemistry ; Physics ; Medicine Print
Artist: James Thomson, 1789-1850
Medium: Lithograph Original
Artist: J. Jackson Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 11.5 x 8.7 cm /
Sheet: 24.5 x 16 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=W
[1802 AD]
(CE 1767-1813) identifies tantalum.
[1] This image was copied from
en.wikipedia.org. The original
description was: Tantalum sample. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ta%2C73.jpg
[2] Anders Gustaf Ekeberg
(1767-1813) PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://homepage.mac.com/dtrapp/E
lements/myth.html
[1802 AD]
1776-1810) invents the first dry
voltaic cell.
[1] Undatiertes Portrait von J. W.
Ritter PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www2.uni-jena.de/biologie
/ehh/forum/ausstellungen/Physik_als_Kuns
t/Physik_als_Kunst.htm
[2] Johann Wilhelm Ritter. Undated
woodcut, courtesy Deutsches Museum,
Munich. Reproduced in Ritter
1986. PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/silpublica
tions/dibner-library-lectures/scientific
-discoveries/text-lecture.htm
[10/21/1803 AD]
that atoms of different elements vary
in size and mass, and makes the first
table of elements by atomic mass.
[1] Figure from: John Dalton, ''On the
Absorption of Gases by Water and Other
Liquids.'' Memoirs of the Literary and
Philosophical Society of Manchester ,
Second Series, 1, 271-87
(1805). http://books.google.com/books?i
d=LJNIAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA259 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=LJNIAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA259
[2] Figure from: John Dalton, ''On
the Absorption of Gases by Water and
Other Liquids.'' Memoirs of the
Literary and Philosophical Society of
Manchester , Second Series, 1, 271-87
(1805). http://books.google.com/books?i
d=LJNIAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA259 PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=LJNIAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA259
[1803 AD]
with Hisinger and independently by
Klaproth.
(presumably)
[1] # Title: Martin Heinrich
Klaproth # Author:Ambroise Tardieu
(engraving) after original portrait by
Eberhard-Siegfried Henne # Year:
unknown # Source:
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollections
/hst/scientific-identity/explore.htm
(reworked) Scientist: Klapproth,
Martin Heinrich (1743 -
1817) Discipline(s): Chemistry Print
Artist: Ambroise Tardieu, 1788-1841
Medium: Engraving Original Artist:
Eberhard-Siegfried Henne, 1759-1828
Original Dimensions: Graphic: 7.5 x
10.3 cm / Sheet: 21.2 x 14.3 cm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Martin_Heinrich_Klaproth.jpg
[2] Scientist: Klapproth, Martin
Heinrich (1743 - 1817) Discipline(s):
Chemistry Original Artist:
Eberhard-Siegfried Henne, 1759-1828
Original Dimensions: Graphic: 10.7 x
9.2 cm / Sheet: 14.9 x 9.2 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=K
[1803 AD]
[1] On the plaques is the following
text: ''This model was refurbished by
the combined efforts of: THE FRIENDS OF
TREVITHICK CENTRAL TRAINS EASTERN
GENERATION ABB-PCL ENGINEERING KUE
ENGINEERING Presented to Central Trains
by Frank Trevithick-Okuno on 17th April
1998. 1803 LOCOMOTIVE RICHARD
TREVITHICK This is a full scale
replica of the first steam railway
locomotive in the world, which preceded
Stephenson's 'Rocket' by 26 years. It
was designed by Richard Trevithick
(1771-1833), and built near Ironbridge
in Shropshire by the Coalbrookdale
Company in the winter of 1802/3. A near
identical engine ran the following year
at Pen-y-Darren. The replica was
built by Task Undertakings, a Manpower
Services Commission project in
Birmingham, under the guidance of Allen
Gulliver, to drawings made for the
Ironbridge Gorge Museum by Stewart
Johnson.'' This replica is located in
Telford Central Station, Telford,
Shropshire, UK. The photo was taken on
14 June 2005 by Mark Barker. CC
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Trevithick1803Locomotive.jpg
[2] London Steam Carriage, eigener
Scan Road locomotive by Trevithick and
Vivian, demonstrated in London in
1803. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Trevithicks_Dampfwagen.jpg
[01/01/1804 AD]
Hispaniola, declares its independence
from France after the first and only
successful slave rebellion. Haiti is
the second independent country in the
Americas, establishing a free republic.
[1] Unofficially leading the nation
politically during the revolution,
Toussaint L'Ouverture is considered the
father of Haiti. Toussaint Louverture.
From a group of engravings done in
post-Revolutionary France. (1802) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Toussaint_L%27Ouverture.jpg
[2] Jean Jacques Dessalines became
Haiti's first emperor in
1804. Jean-Jacques Dessalines (1760 -
1806). PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Dessalines.jpg
[1804 AD]
(CE 1766-1828) isolates pure platinum
metal.
[1] Scientist: Wollaston, William Hyde
(1766 - 1878) Discipline(s):
Chemistry ; Physics ; Medicine Print
Artist: James Thomson, 1789-1850
Medium: Lithograph Original
Artist: J. Jackson Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 11.5 x 8.7 cm /
Sheet: 24.5 x 16 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=W
[2] Scientist: Wollaston, William
Hyde (1766 - 1828) Discipline(s):
Chemistry ; Physics ;
Medicine Original Artist: J. Jackson
Original Dimensions: Graphic: 13.8 x
11 cm / Sheet: 27.4 x 18.3
cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=W
[1804 AD]
(CE 1766-1828) isolates palladium.
[1] Scientist: Wollaston, William Hyde
(1766 - 1878) Discipline(s):
Chemistry ; Physics ; Medicine Print
Artist: James Thomson, 1789-1850
Medium: Lithograph Original
Artist: J. Jackson Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 11.5 x 8.7 cm /
Sheet: 24.5 x 16 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=W
[2] Scientist: Wollaston, William
Hyde (1766 - 1828) Discipline(s):
Chemistry ; Physics ;
Medicine Original Artist: J. Jackson
Original Dimensions: Graphic: 13.8 x
11 cm / Sheet: 27.4 x 18.3
cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=W
[1805 AD]
(CE 1766-1828) isolates rhodium.
[1] Rhodium foil and wire. Image taken
by User:Dschwen on January 12th
2006. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Rhodium_foil_and_wire.jpg
[2] Scientist: Wollaston, William
Hyde (1766 - 1878) Discipline(s):
Chemistry ; Physics ; Medicine Print
Artist: James Thomson, 1789-1850
Medium: Lithograph Original
Artist: J. Jackson Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 11.5 x 8.7 cm /
Sheet: 24.5 x 16 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=W
[1805 AD]
Percussion ignition will replace
ignition by flint spark.
(presumably)
[03/29/1807 AD]
(CE 1758-1840), finds the planetoid
(asteroid) Vesta.
[1] Vesta PD
source: http://rst.gsfc.nasa.gov/Sect19/
Sect19_2.html
[2] To prepare for the Dawn
spacecraft's visit to Vesta,
astronomers used Hubble's Wide Field
Planetary Camera 2 to snap new images
of the asteroid. The image was taken on
May 14 and 16, 2007. Using Hubble,
astronomers mapped Vesta's southern
hemisphere, a region dominated by a
giant impact crater formed by a
collision billions of years ago. The
crater is 285 miles (456 kilometers)
across, which is nearly equal to
Vesta's 330-mile (530-kilometer)
diameter. If Earth had a crater of
proportional size, it would fill the
Pacific Ocean basin. The impact broke
off chunks of rock, producing more than
50 smaller asteroids that astronomers
have nicknamed ''vestoids.'' The
collision also may have blasted through
Vesta's crust. Vesta is about the size
of Arizona. Source
http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/ar
chive/releases/2007/27/image/a/,
http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/archive
/releases/2007/27/image/c/ PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Vesta-HST-Color.jpg
[10/06/1807 AD]
identifies and isolates potassium.
[1] Image:Kmetal.jpg Size of this
preview: 800 × 600 pixels Full
resolution (4,000 × 3,000
pixels, file size: 4.83 MB, MIME type:
image/jpeg) [t Does metal oxide? Is
volatile in water?] CC
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Kmetal.jpg
[2] Flame test Kalium,
violett Source: German Wikipedia,
original upload 24. Jan 2005 by Herge
(selfmade) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Flammenf%C3%A4rbungK.png
[10/13/1807 AD]
identifies and isolates sodium.
[1] Sodium metal from the Dennis s.k
collection. CC
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Nametal.JPG.jpg
[2] The flame test for sodium displays
a brilliantly bright yellow emission
due to the so called ''sodium D-lines''
at 588.9950 and 589.5924
nanometers. 13. jun 2005 GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Flametest--Na.swn.jpg
[1807 AD]
1768-1830) explains "Fourier's theorem"
(or the "Fourier transform") that any
periodic oscillation can be reduced to
a sum of simple trigonometric
(sine,cosine, etc) wave motions.
[1]
http://br.geocities.com/saladefisica3/fo
tos/fourier.jpg PD/CC
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Fourier2.jpg
[2] Scientist: Fourier, Jean Baptiste
Joseph (1768 - 1830) Discipline(s):
Mathematics ; Physics Print Artist:
Julien Leopold Boilly, 1796-1874
Medium: Lithograph Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 16.3 x 16.5 cm /
Sheet: 30.1 x 19.5 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=F
[06/21/1808 AD]
(GAlYUSoK) (CE 1778-1850) and Thénard
isolate boron.
[1] English: Boron sample. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:B%2C5.jpg
[2] Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Gaylussac.jpg
[1808 AD]
identifies, isolates and names barium,
strontium, calcium and magnesium.
[1] This image was copied from
en.wikipedia.org. The original
description was: Barium sample.GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ba%2C56.jpg
[2] This image was copied from
en.wikipedia.org. The original
description was: Strontium
sample. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Sr%2C38.jpg
[1809 AD]
simple forms of life were created from
heat, light and electricity acting on
inorganic materials and that more
complex organisms evolved from simple
organisms over a long time.
[1] La bildo estas kopiita de
wikipedia:fr. La originala priskribo
estas: Deuxième portrait de
Lamarck Sujet : Lamarck. Source :
Galerie des naturalistes de J.
Pizzetta, Ed. Hennuyer, 1893
(tomb� dans le domaine
public) GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jean-baptiste_lamarck2.jpg
[2] An engraving of Jean-Baptiste
Lamarck at 35 years of age. Source
Alpheus Spring Packard's 1901
Lamarck, the Founder of Evolution: His
Life and Work with Translations of His
Writings on Organic Evolution, page
20. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Lamarckat35.PNG
[1809 AD]
1778-1850) identifies that gases
combine in small whole number ratios by
volume.
[1] Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Gaylussac.jpg
[2] Scientist: Gay-Lussac, Joseph
Louis (1778 - 1850) Discipline(s):
Chemistry ; Physics Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 10 x 6.4 cm /
Sheet: 25 x 19.3 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=g
[1809 AD]
builds the first electric light and arc
lamp.
[1] Humphry Davy demonstrates his new
electric light for the members of the
Royal Institution of London. Power is
drawn from the banks of batteries in
the basement and rapidly used up by the
intense light. Electric light was then
only a scientific curiosity, practical
only when expense was no
object. Humphry Davy Demonstrating the
Arc Light, 1809 PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://people.clarkson.edu/%7Eek
atz/scientists/davy.htm
[2]
http://www.nndb.com/people/028/000083776
/humphry-davy-2-sized.jpg [left finger
1: ''left'' viewed as educated
intellectuals in 1800s England? just
coincidence?] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Sir_Humphry_Davy2.jpg
[1810 AD]
names "chlorine" and identifies
chlorine as an element. Davy shows that
hydrochloric acid contains no oxygen
proving Lavoisier incorrect that all
acids contain oxygen.
Davy shows that chlorine can also
support combustion as oxygen does.
(chronology)
Davy correctly suggests that the
content of hydrogen is characteristic
of acids. (verify)
[1]
http://www.nndb.com/people/028/000083776
/humphry-davy-2-sized.jpg [left finger
1: ''left'' viewed as educated
intellectuals in 1800s England? just
coincidence?] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Sir_Humphry_Davy2.jpg
[2] Taken from The Life of Sir
Humphry Davy by John A. Paris, London:
Colburn and Bentley, 1831. Engraving
from about 1830, based on a portrait by
Sir Thomas Lawrence (1769 - 1830) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Humphry_Davy_Engraving_1830.jpg
[1811 AD]
images the eye sees.
Secret: Images that the
brain sees are seen and recorded using
the electricity they produce in the
human nerves. Possibly images of
thought are also seen at this time.
The exact date, time, location,
invention, and even inventor are not
clear because of the secrecy that still
surrounds this technology.
[1811 AD]
Amedeo Avogadro (oVOGoDrO) (CE
1776-1856) creates the concept of a
molecule and distinguishes between
atoms and molecules.
[1] [t [3 wiki] describes as
''Caricature of Amedeo Avogadro'', is
this not an accurate portrait? and no
photo by 1856?] Amedeo Avogadro -
chemist PD
source: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wik
i/Image:Amedeo_Avogadro.gif
[2] Amedeo Avogadro, lithograph,
1856. The Granger Collection, New York
PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-15471/Amedeo-Avogadro-lithograph-1856?a
rticleTypeId=1
[1811 AD]
1777-1838), French chemist, identifies
and isolates iodine.
[1] Pure iodine crystals, heated
slightly, showing some solid iodine
escaping directly to the air as obvious
violet colored vapors. Because of this
''sublimation'' property, exposures
include dermal contact with solid
crystals and inhalation of vapors which
may not be quite as visible as this at
room temperature. Photographer, Charles
Salocks. PD
source: http://www.dtsc.ca.gov/SiteClean
up/ERP/Clan_Labs.cfm
[2] Bernard Courtois PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.iodinesource.com/Hist
oryOfIodine.asp
[1813 AD]
(CE 1779-1848), suggests elements be
represented with one or more letter.
[1]
http://www.chemistry.msu.edu/Portraits/i
mages/Berzelius3c.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:J%C3%B6ns_Jacob_Berzelius.jpg
[2] Scientist: Berzelius, Jons Jakob
(1779 - 1848) Discipline(s):
Chemistry Print Artist: Charles W.
Sharpe, d. 1875(76) Medium:
Engraving Original Artist: Johan
Olaf Sodermark, 1790-1848 Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 26.8 x 18.2 cm /
Sheet: 31.6 x 23 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=B
[1814 AD]
1776-1856) describes the molecular
formulas for carbon dioxide, carbon
disulfide, sulfur dioxide, and hydrogen
sulfide.
[1] [t [3 wiki] describes as
''Caricature of Amedeo Avogadro'', is
this not an accurate portrait? and no
photo by 1856?] Amedeo Avogadro -
chemist PD
source: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wik
i/Image:Amedeo_Avogadro.gif
[2] Amedeo Avogadro, lithograph,
1856. The Granger Collection, New York
PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-15471/Amedeo-Avogadro-lithograph-1856?a
rticleTypeId=1
[1814 AD]
substance emits specific frequencies of
light and invents a spectroscope.
Germany
[1] Figures from Frauhofer's 1823
paper PD/Corel
source: Fraunhofer_1823.pdf
[2] Fraunhofer's Theodolite
spectroscope [t verify that this is
in Fraunhofer's 1814 paper]
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=mpwRAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA13&dq=fraunhofer+1814
&lr=&as_brr=1#PPA14,M1
[07/08/1815 AD]
after the defeat of Napoleon.
[10/??/1815 AD]
interpreted with a (longitudinal) wave
theory for light by Augustin Jean
Fresnel (FrAneL) (CE 1788-1827) is
published by the Academy of Sciences
and this is the first public
acknowledgment and support of Young's
reintroduction of a wave theory for
light in France.
[1] Scientist: Fresnel, Augustin Jean
(1788 - 1827) Discipline(s):
Physics Print Artist: Ambroise
Tardieu, 1788-1841 Medium: Engraving
Original Dimensions: Graphic: 10.9 x
7.9 cm / Sheet: 21.5 x 14.7
cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=f
[2] Fresnel Lens displayed in the
Mus�e national de la marine in
Paris, France CeCILL
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:MuseeMarine-phareFresnel-p1000466.jpg
[1815 AD]
proposes that the atomic weights of
elements are multiples of the atomic
weight of hydrogen.
[1] William Prout
(1785-1850) PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.uam.es/departamentos/
ciencias/qorg/docencia_red/qo/l0/1830.ht
ml
[1816 AD]
(CE 1765-1833) creates the first
photograph.
[1] C. Laguiche. Joseph Nicéphore
Niépce. ca1795. Ink and
watercolor. 18.5 cm in
diameter. PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.hrc.utexas.edu/exhibi
tions/permanent/wfp/3.html
[2] English: By Nicéphore Niépce in
1826, entitled ''View from the Window
at Le Gras,'' captured on 20 × 25 cm
oil-treated bitumen. Due to the 8-hour
exposure, the buildings are illuminated
by the sun from both right and left.
This photo is generally considered the
first successful permanent
photograph. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:View_from_the_Window_at_Le_Gras%2C_Jo
seph_Nic%C3%A9phore_Ni%C3%A9pce.jpg
[1817 AD]
proposes that light waves are
transverse (oscillate at right angle to
direction of travel) waves through an
aether medium.
.jpg)
[1] Scientist: Young, Thomas (1773 -
1829) Discipline(s): Physics Print
Artist: G. Adcock, 19th C. Medium:
Engraving Original Artist: Thomas
Lawrence, 1769-1830 Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 11.1 x 8.7 cm /
Sheet: 19.6 x 12.5 cm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Thomas_Young_%28scientist%29.jpg
[2] Scientist: Young, Thomas (1773 -
1829) Discipline(s): Physics Print
Artist: Henry Adlard, 19th C.
Medium: Engraving Original Artist:
Thomas Lawrence, 1769-1830 Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 11.2 x 9 cm /
Sheet: 24.8 x 16.6 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=Y
[1817 AD]
Stromeyer) (sTrOmIR) (CE 1776-1835)
identifies cadmium.
[1] Cadmium metal PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:CadmiumMetalUSGOV.jpg
[2] Friedrich Stromeyer PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Friedrich_Strohmeyer.jpg
[1817 AD]
(CE 1779-1848), identifies selenium.
This leads to the electric camera.
[1] Selenium sample. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Se%2C34.jpg
[2] black, grey and red Selene Source
http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bild:S
elen_1.jpg Date 03/2006 Author
http://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?t
itle=Benutzer:Tomihahndorf&action=edit
PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Selen_1.jpg
[1817 AD]
light.
[1] Scientist: Gmelin, Leopold (1788 -
1853) Discipline(s): Chemistry Print
Artist: George Cook, 1793-1849
Medium: Engraving Original Artist:
J. Woelfyle Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 15.2 x 12 cm / Sheet: 26.9 x
18.4 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=G
[1819 AD]
(CE 1788-1827) and François Arago
(oroGO) (CE 1786-1853) discover that
two beams of light, polarized in
perpendicular directions, do not
interfere with each other (using
double-refracting crystal and a metal
cylinder to produce interference
bands). In other words Arago and
Fresnel find no interference bands
typical of unpolarized or one-plane
polarized light. (I have doubts about
this, and a video should be made
showing this experiment. For example,
the bands which I interpret as being
from reflection would be there,
theoretically no matter how the beams
are polarized. Although I can see that
a polarized surface might not reflect
light polarized to a different plane,
absorbing that light instead since
matter would not be aligned to reflect
such beams.)
[1] Scientist: Fresnel, Augustin Jean
(1788 - 1827) Discipline(s):
Physics Print Artist: Ambroise
Tardieu, 1788-1841 Medium: Engraving
Original Dimensions: Graphic: 10.9 x
7.9 cm / Sheet: 21.5 x 14.7
cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=f
[2] Fresnel Lens displayed in the
Musée national de la marine in Paris,
France CeCILL
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Musee
Marine-phareFresnel-p1000466.jpg
[04/21/1820 AD]
(CE 1777-1851) finds that electricity
moves a magnetic compass needle.
[1] A younger Hans Christian Ørsted,
painted in the 19th century. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:%C3%98rsted.jpg
[2] Picture number :317 CD number
:9 Picture size :757x859[pixels],
66x75[mm] Date taken :0000-00-00
Date added
:2000-04-13 Fotographer/Owner :Engrave
d Location
:Denmark Description H.C. Oersted
(1777-1851). Danish physicist. Here as
a youngster. The picture was donated to
the Danish Polytech Institute,
Copenhagen, by his daughter Miss
Mathilde Oersted, April 19,
1905. PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.polytechphotos.dk/ind
ex.php?CHGLAN=2&CatID=286
[09/18/1820 AD]
1775-1836) relates direction of current
in a wire to magnetic force.
[1] André-Marie Ampère
(1775-1836) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ampere1.jpg
[2] Scientist: Ampère, André-Marie
(1775 - 1836) Discipline(s):
Mathematics ; Chemistry ;
Physics Print Artist: L. Deymarie
Medium: Engraving Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 42.5 x 31.5 cm
/ PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=A
[09/25/1820 AD]
electricity.
André Marie Ampère (oMPAR) (CE
1775-1836) understands that magnetism
is caused by an electric current; that
magnetism is actually electricity.
[1] [t Figure 1 and 2 from 10/02/1820
paper] PD/Corel
source: http://www.ampere.cnrs.fr/i-corp
uspic/tab/Oeuvres/annales_chimie_15/077.
jpg
[2] André-Marie Ampère
(1775-1836) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ampere1.jpg
[10/30/1820 AD]
1774-1862), and the physicist Félix
Savart find that the intensity of the
magnetic field created by a current
flowing through a wire is inversely
proportional to the distance from the
wire. This relationship is now known as
the Biot-Savart law.
[1] [t Figure from Biot book] PD/Corel
source: Tricker, R. A. R., "Early
Electrodynamics - The First Law of
Circulation", (Pergamon, NY), 1965,
p120.
[2] [t Table from Biot book] PD/Corel
source: Tricker, R. A. R., "Early
Electrodynamics - The First Law of
Circulation", (Pergamon, NY), 1965,
p130.
[1820 AD]
Schweigger (sViGGR) (CE 1779-1857),
German physicist invents the first
galvonometer, finding that a deflecting
needle can be used to measure a current
and that wrapping a wire several turns
around a compass needly increases the
effect.
[1] Diagram of Schweigger's
multiplier. From Journal für Chemie
und Physik 31 (Neue Reihe, Bd.
I, 1821), Plate I (after p. 114), Fig.
10. Smithsonian neg. no. 46,825. PD
source: http://siarchives.si.edu/history
/jhp/joseph21.htm
[2] Multiplier (Multiplicator) In
1820, Schweigger built a rectangular
wooden frame on which he wound an
insulated wire. This was called the
Schweigger multiplier. A magnetic
needle was suspended from a thin thread
inside the coil. In the absence of
electrical current the needle is
oriented according to the magnetic
meridian. When an electrical current is
passed through the coil on the frame,
the needle changes direction; the
stronger the current, the more marked
the deflection. PD?/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/histor
y/schweigger.html
[1820 AD]
engine.
England
[1] W. Cecil's hydrogen combustion
vacuum engine PD/Corel
source: http://www.eng.cam.ac.uk/DesignO
ffice/projects/cecil/images/isometricalv
iew.jpg
[2] Cecil's figures PD/Corel
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=hgYFAAAAQAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edi
tions:0iE3HbhCd9wmSagF2t&as_brr=1#PPA230
,M1
[06/??/1821 AD]
Jean Fresnel (FrAneL) (CE 1788-1827)
describes light as a transverse wave
vibration of an aether medium. Although
this theory will be proven incorrect by
Michelson and Morley in the early
1900s, this belief of light as a
transverse wave is still popular today,
and therefore stands, like deities,
creationism, the big bang, and
time-dilation, as being an inaccurate
theory that holds popular belief for
many years.
[1] Scientist: Fresnel, Augustin Jean
(1788 - 1827) Discipline(s):
Physics Print Artist: Ambroise
Tardieu, 1788-1841 Medium: Engraving
Original Dimensions: Graphic: 10.9 x
7.9 cm / Sheet: 21.5 x 14.7
cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=f
[2] Fresnel Lens displayed in the
Musée national de la marine in Paris,
France CeCILL
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:MuseeMarine-phareFresnel-p1000466.jpg
[07/05/1821 AD]
a vacuum moved by a magnet.
[1] A. The tube, of the usual
diameter. B. The wire for
communicating electricity. E. A small
cylinder of metallic foil, to place as
a cap on tubes not having the wire B,
to make a coated surface. C. The
surface of the quicksilver, or fused
tin. D. The part of the tube to be
exhausted by the stop-cock F, after
being filled by means of the same
stop-cock, when necessary, with
hydrogene. G. The moveable[err] tube
connected with the air-pump. It is
evident, that by introducing more
mercury, the leg D may be filled with
mercury, and the stop-cock closed upon
it, so as to leave only a torricellian
vacuum in the tube, in which the
mercury may be boiled. I have found
that the experiment tried in this way,
offers no difference of result. PD
source: http://journals.royalsociety.org
/content/cu3223052t214156/?p=a822388f3bd
34c1f976f9a6152c9ebcbπ=55 Farther
Researches on the Magnetic Phaenomena
Produced by Electricity; With Some New
Experiments on the Properties of
Electrified Bodies in Their Relations
to Conducting Powers and
Temperature Davy_magnetic_full.pdf p74
[2]
http://www.nndb.com/people/028/000083776
/humphry-davy-2-sized.jpg [left finger
1: ''left'' viewed as educated
intellectuals in 1800s England? just
coincidence?] PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Sir_H
umphry_Davy2.jpg
[09/07/1821 AD]
established, with Simón Bolívar as
the founding President.
[1] Simón Bolívar. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Sim%C3%B3n_Bol%C3%ADvar.jpg
[09/11/1821 AD]
invents the first electric motor.
England
[1] The first electric motors - Michael
Faraday, 1821 From the Quarterly
Journal of Science, Vol XII, 1821 PD
source: http://www.sparkmuseum.com/MOTOR
S.HTM
[2] Description Michael Faraday,
oil, by Thomas Phillips Source
Thomas Phillips,1842 Date
1842 Author Thomas Phillips[3
wiki] The portrait shown here was
painted by Thomas Phillips (1770-1845),
oil on canvas, The National Portrait
Gallery, London.[7] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:M_Faraday_Th_Phillips_oil_1842.jpg
[1821 AD]
1776-1856) describes the molecular
formulas for alcohol (C2H6O) and for
ether (C4H10O).
[1] [t [3 wiki] describes as
''Caricature of Amedeo Avogadro'', is
this not an accurate portrait? and no
photo by 1856?] Amedeo Avogadro -
chemist PD
source: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wik
i/Image:Amedeo_Avogadro.gif
[2] Amedeo Avogadro, lithograph,
1856. The Granger Collection, New York
PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-15471/Amedeo-Avogadro-lithograph-1856?a
rticleTypeId=1
[06/14/1823 AD]
nλ=Dsinθ equating wavelength of light
to grating groove spacing, and is the
first to calculate wavelength of light
using a diffraction grating.
(presumably)
[1] T is the angle made with the plane
of the grating by a colored beam after
diffraction. E is grating spacing, v
is order of spectrum, w is
wavelength Adapter equation 5
from: Kurzer Bericht von den
Resultaten neurer Versuche über die
Gesetze des Lichtes, und die Theorie
derselben, ''Annalen der Physik'',
LXXIV, 1823, pp. 337-378. Excerpts
in English translation ''SHORT ACCOUNT
OF THE RESULTS OF NEW EXPERIMENTS ON
THE LAWS OF LIGHT AND THEIR THEORY'' :
J. S. Ames (ed.), Prismatic and
Diffraction Spectra: Memoirs by
Joseph von Fraunhofer, New York 1898,
pp.
39-61. http://books.google.com/books?hl
=en&id=5GE3AAAAMAAJ&dq=Prismatic+and+Dif
fraction+Spectra:++Memoirs+by+Joseph+von
+Fraunhofer&printsec=frontcover&source=w
eb&ots=K2VGb4IsNb&sig=HcoZYrNDKoTfjsUErI
WZX5pLtn0&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&c
t=result#PPP11,M1 {Fraunhofer_Joseph_vo
n_Prismatic_and_diffraction_spectra_1823
0714.pdf} others: Gilbert's Annalen
der Physlk, Band 74, p. 337-378.
Edinburgh Journal of Science, VII,
VIII, 1827, 1828. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?hl
=en&id=5GE3AAAAMAAJ&dq=Prismatic+and+Dif
fraction+Spectra:++Memoirs+by+Joseph+von
+Fraunhofer&printsec=frontcover&source=w
eb&ots=K2VGb4IsNb&sig=HcoZYrNDKoTfjsUErI
WZX5pLtn0&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&c
t=result#PPP11,M1
[2] English: Joseph von Fraunhofer was
a German physicist. Quelle: Engraving
in the Small Portraits collection,
History of Science Collections,
University of Oklahoma
Libraries. http://hsci.cas.ou.edu/exhib
its/exhibit.php?exbid=34&exbpg=1 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Fraunhofer_2.jpg
[1823 AD]
earliest) gas combustion vacuum engine
(known to be put to work around a
city).
The earliest known gas engine to be
designed was by John Barber in 1791.
In 1820 Farish and Cecil are claimed to
have built the earliest known working
gas engine.
Brown's engines are the first to
actually work in London and the
neighbourhood.
In 1823 Samuel Brown invents an
important gas engine. It is an
atmospheric engine, with water-jacket
to cool the cylinder. A gas jet is kept
constantly burning outside the
cylinder, and ignites a mixture of
inflammable gas and air below the
piston. Part of the expanded gases is
allowed to escape through valves in the
piston; then by cooling with water, a
vacuum is effected, and the atmospheric
pressure outside drives down the
piston. In his patent, No 4874 of 1823,
he describes three applications of this
principle to different kinds of
machinery first to turn a water wheel;
second, to raise water; and the third,
to drive pistons.
This engine is double
acting, a piston being attached to each
end of the crossbeam or level by a rod
and chain. The arrangement somewhat
resembles Newcomen's atmospheric
engine.
20 engines are patented between 1826
and 1860 when Lenoir's engine is
patented.
[1] [t Samuel Brown's engine used to
raise water] PD/Corel
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=8e9MAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA103&lpg=PA103&dq=%22r
obert+street%22+patent+engine&source=web
&ots=zXhunpMWQn&sig=OK3zL_tlF9en_5S83tLJ
0kuNyVI&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum
=1&ct=result#PPA105,M1
[1824 AD]
(CE 1779-1848) isolates silicon. (how?)
[1] Close up photo of a piece purified
silicon. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:SiliconCroda.jpg
[2] Date: 02.04.1998 Title:
SILICON WAFER WITH MIRROR FINISH
Description: SILICON WAFER WITH MIRROR
FINISH ID: C-1998-00319
Credit: NASA Glenn Research Center
(NASA-GRC) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:1998_00319L.jpg
[1825 AD]
William Sturgeon (CE 1783-1850) builds
the first practical electromagnet (also
known as an inductor).
Soft iron is iron that when exposed to
a magnetic field become a magnet but
loses this magnetism when the magnetic
field is removed. Hard iron is iron
that when exposed to a magnetic field
becomes a magnet, but remains a magnet
when the magnetic field is removed
(State chemical and/or molecular
difference between soft and hard iron).
Only certain metals can be magnets and
are called "ferromagnetic". Besides
iron are nickel, cobalt, and alnico, an
aluminum-nickel-cobalt alloy (list all
others, so iron is not the only element
that can produce and retain a magnetic
field. Presumably any metal and
electrical conductor that can carry
current can produce an electric (and
magnetic) field.). At first a piece of
lodestone was used as a compass needle,
then hard iron was used.(state when and
add record)
[1] Sturgeon's electro- magnet of
1824 PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/histor
y/sturgeon.html
[2] [t presumably the 1825
electromagnet] PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: same
[03/??/1826 AD]
spectrum of a flame can be used to
detect the presence of chemical
compounds.
[1] The AMICO Library from RLG -
William Henry Fox Talbot. Leaves of
Orchidea (negative). 1839. J. Paul
Getty Museum. [JPGM86.XM.621] PD/Corel
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:William_Fox_Talbot.jpg
[2] William Henry Fox
Talbot Photogenic drawing. C.
1835 PD/Corel
source: http://www.edinphoto.org.uk/pp_n
/pp_szabo.htm
[07/05/1826 AD]
of alternating current and photon or
wireless communication).
(presumably)
[1826 AD]
1765-1833) creates the first permanent
photo.
[1] English: By Nicéphore Niépce in
1826, entitled ''View from the Window
at Le Gras,'' captured on 20 × 25 cm
oil-treated bitumen. Due to the 8-hour
exposure, the buildings are illuminated
by the sun from both right and left.
This photo is generally considered the
first successful permanent
photograph. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:View_from_the_Window_at_Le_Gras%2C_Jo
seph_Nic%C3%A9phore_Ni%C3%A9pce.jpg
[2] Joseph-Nicéphore Niépce. ©
Bettmann/Corbis PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://concise.britannica.com/eb
c/art-59378/Joseph-Nicephore-Niepce
[1826 AD]
discovered.
Montpellier, France
[1] This image was copied from
en.wikipedia.org. The original
description was: Bromine sample
(liquid). Photo by RTC. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Br%2C35.jpg
[2] Description Foto des Chemikers
de:Antoine-Jérôme Balard
(1802-1876) Source
http://www.nndb.com/people/586/000114
244/balard-1.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Antoine-Jerome_Balard.jpg
[1826 AD]
earliest) gas combustion vacuum engine
powered car and boat.
[1] [t Samuel Brown's engine used to
raise water] PD/Corel
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=8e9MAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA103&lpg=PA103&dq=%22r
obert+street%22+patent+engine&source=web
&ots=zXhunpMWQn&sig=OK3zL_tlF9en_5S83tLJ
0kuNyVI&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum
=1&ct=result#PPA105,M1
[04/07/1827 AD]
[1] This image was selected as a
picture of the day for 1 January 2007.
It was captioned as follows: English:
A paper match igniting. Description
Deutsch: Ein brennendes
Streichholz. English: Lighting a
match. Français : Une allumette
enflammée. Dansk: En tændt
tændstik. Magyar: Egy gyufa
meggyulladása. Norsk (nynorsk):
Ei tent fyrstikke. Polski: Zapłon
zapałki Date 2 January
2006 Source Own work Author
Sebastian Ritter (Rise0011) CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c1/Streichholz.jpg
[05/01/1827 AD]
1789-1854) defines the concept of
electrical resistance and describes
"Ohm's law", I=V/R (or V=IR), where
current (I, in Amps) equals voltage
(electric potential, or electromotive
force) divided by resistance (R in
Ohms).
Cologne?)
[1] [t Figures from 1827 work of
Ohm] PD
source: Ohm_Georg_1827.pdf
[2] Georg Simon Ohm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ohm3.gif
[1827 AD]
identifies the motion of fine powder in
water. This is now called "Brownian
motion", and is evidence of atoms.
[1] Robert Brown, a Scotish
botanist. Source: Robert Brown
(15:41, 5 August 2005 . . Neon (Talk
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Brown.robert.jpg
[2] contribs) . . 300x357 (15,406
bytes) (Robert Brown's Picture, who
invented brownian motion ) PD/GNU
source: http://www.abdn.ac.uk/mediarelea
ses/release.php?id=341
[1827 AD]
[02/??/1828 AD]
(VOElR) produces the first "organic"
molecule (urea) from inorganic sources
(ammonium cyanate).
Berlin, Germany
[1] * Title: Friedrich Wöhler *
Year: unknown * Source:
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollections
/hst/scientific-identity/explore.htm
* Licence: Public Domain PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Friedrich_W%C3%B6hler_Stich.jpg
[2] Friedrich Wöhler, German
chemist Source:
http://wwwihm.nlm.nih.gov/ PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Friedrich_woehler.jpg
[03/27/1829 AD]
wire near a magnet.
Phenomenon of dynamic electrical
induction observed. Francesco
Zantedeschi (CE 1797-1873) produces
electric current by moving wire near a
permanent magnet.
Zantedeschi explicitly makes the
analogy between a North magnetic Pole
and the zinc pole of a voltaic battery.
[1] Francesco Zantedeschi PD/Corel
source: http://www.liceofoscarini.it/sto
ria/bio/zantedeschi.html
[2] Image of Francesco Zantedeschi
1797 to 1873 to illustrate that
article. Uploaded from
http://www.jergym.hiedu.cz/~canovm/objev
ite/objev4/zan.htm and
http://www.jergym.hiedu.cz/~canovm/objev
ite/objev4/zan2.htm (English
translation) This portrait of
Francesco Zantedeschi was published by
Stefano de Stefani, president of the
Academy of Agriculture, Arts and
Commerce of Verona, on March 21, 1875
to accompany his eulogy to Zantedeschi
on the occasion of the transport of his
ashes to the cemetery at Verona. Black
and white version PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Franc
esco_Zantedeschi_bw.jpg
[1829 AD]
(CE 1779-1848) identifies thorium.
(how?)
[1] Thorium metal foil (approximately
0.5 mm thick) sealed in a glass ampoule
under an argon atmosphere to prevent
oxidation. Sample is from the personal
collection of Justin Urgitis. CC
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Thorium.jpg
[2]
http://www.chemistry.msu.edu/Portraits/i
mages/Berzelius3c.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:J%C3%B6ns_Jacob_Berzelius.jpg
[1830 AD]
are partly a result of the threshing
machine. Following years of war, high
taxes and low wages, farm laborers
finally turn violent in 1830. These
farm laborers had faced unemployment
for a number of years due to the
widespread introduction of the
threshing machine and the policy of
enclosing fields. No longer were
thousands of men needed to tend the
crops, a few would suffice. With fewer
jobs, lower wages and no prospects of
things improving for these workers the
threshing machine was the final straw,
the machine was to place them on the
brink of starvation. The Swing Rioters
smash the threshing machines and
threatened farmers who have them.
The riots are dealt with very harshly.
Nine of the rioters are hanged and a
further 450 are transported to
Australia.
[1830 AD]
[1] Thimonnier�s first machine
� now in the Lyon Museum PD
source: http://www.ismacs.net/sewing_mac
hine_articles/images/thimonniers_first_s
ewing_machine.jpg
[2] Portreto de Barthélemy
Thimonnier PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/93/Thimonnier_portreto.j
pg
[1830 AD]
in size. First hovering and flying
electric motor device.
[02/17/1831 AD]
produces electrical current from an
electromagnet, inventing the first
transformer.
England
[1] Description Michael Faraday,
oil, by Thomas Phillips Source
Thomas Phillips,1842 Date
1842 Author Thomas Phillips[3
wiki] The portrait shown here was
painted by Thomas Phillips (1770-1845),
oil on canvas, The National Portrait
Gallery, London.[7] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:M_Faraday_Th_Phillips_oil_1842.jpg
[2] Michael Faraday - Project
Gutenberg eText 13103 From The Project
Gutenberg eBook, Great Britain and Her
Queen, by Anne E.
Keeling http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/
13103 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Michael_Faraday_-_Project_Gutenberg_e
Text_13103.jpg
[09/??/1831 AD]
invents the dynamic electric generator,
(or "dynamo") by mechanically moving a
conductor near a magnet to produce a
constant electric current.
England
[1] Description Michael Faraday,
oil, by Thomas Phillips Source
Thomas Phillips,1842 Date
1842 Author Thomas Phillips[3
wiki] The portrait shown here was
painted by Thomas Phillips (1770-1845),
oil on canvas, The National Portrait
Gallery, London.[7] PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:M_Far
aday_Th_Phillips_oil_1842.jpg
[2] Michael Faraday - Project
Gutenberg eText 13103 From The Project
Gutenberg eBook, Great Britain and Her
Queen, by Anne E.
Keeling http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/
13103 PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Micha
el_Faraday_-_Project_Gutenberg_eText_131
03.jpg
[1831 AD]
identifies and names the cell
"nucleus".
[1] Robert Brown, a Scotish
botanist. Source: Robert Brown
(15:41, 5 August 2005 . . Neon (Talk
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Brown.robert.jpg
[2] contribs) . . 300x357 (15,406
bytes) (Robert Brown's Picture, who
invented brownian motion ) PD/GNU
source: http://www.abdn.ac.uk/mediarelea
ses/release.php?id=341
[01/03/1832 AD]
physicist, identifies self induction,
and that a changing magnetic field also
causes induced current to flow.
[1] In 1846, the Smithsonian Board of
Regents chose Joseph Henry as the
Institution's first
secretary. PD/Corel
source: http://www.150.si.edu/chap2/2man
.htm
.jpg)
[2] Description Portrait of Joseph
Henry Source
http://www.photolib.noaa.gov/bigs/per
s0124.jpg Date 1879 Author
Henry Ulke
(1821-1910) Permission (Reusing this
image) Public domain. PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Jospe
h_Henry_%281879%29.jpg
[1832 AD]
[1] Henri Braconnot, French
chemist H402/0577 Rights
Managed Credit: CCI ARCHIVES/SCIENCE
PHOTO LIBRARY Caption: Henri
Braconnot (1780-1855), French chemist
and pharmacist. At 13 Braconnot
undertook a two year apprenticeship in
a pharmacy in Nancy. As well as
pharmacology he also studied chemistry
and botany. He continued his education
in Strasbourg and Paris, before
returning to Nancy in 1802 to become
the chairman of the botanical garden.
His research lead to the discovery of
numerous plant compounds, including
acids and sugars, as well as
discovering chitin, the earliest known
polysaccharide, in mushrooms. Braconnot
was also the first chemist to create a
polymer when he added nitric acid to
wood or cotton to obtain
xyloidine. Release details: Model
and property releases are not available
PD
source: http://www.sciencephoto.com/imag
e/223788/large/H4020577-Henri_Braconnot,
_French_chemist-SPL.jpg
[2] Henri Braconnot, French
chemist H402/0577 Rights
Managed Credit: CCI ARCHIVES/SCIENCE
PHOTO LIBRARY Caption: Henri
Braconnot (1780-1855), French chemist
and pharmacist. At 13 Braconnot
undertook a two year apprenticeship in
a pharmacy in Nancy. As well as
pharmacology he also studied chemistry
and botany. He continued his education
in Strasbourg and Paris, before
returning to Nancy in 1802 to become
the chairman of the botanical garden.
His research lead to the discovery of
numerous plant compounds, including
acids and sugars, as well as
discovering chitin, the earliest known
polysaccharide, in mushrooms. Braconnot
was also the first chemist to create a
polymer when he added nitric acid to
wood or cotton to obtain
xyloidine. Release details: Model
and property releases are not available
PD
source:
[1832 AD]
electrolysis.
England
[1] Description Michael Faraday,
oil, by Thomas Phillips Source
Thomas Phillips,1842 Date
1842 Author Thomas Phillips[3
wiki] The portrait shown here was
painted by Thomas Phillips (1770-1845),
oil on canvas, The National Portrait
Gallery, London.[7] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:M_Faraday_Th_Phillips_oil_1842.jpg
[2] Michael Faraday - Project
Gutenberg eText 13103 From The Project
Gutenberg eBook, Great Britain and Her
Queen, by Anne E.
Keeling http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/
13103 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Michael_Faraday_-_Project_Gutenberg_e
Text_13103.jpg
[1832 AD]
generator (dynamo).
[1] The machine contained a permanent
magnet which was rotated by a hand
crank. The spinning magnet was
positioned so that its north and south
poles passed by a piece of iron wrapped
with wire. Pixii found that the
spinning magnet produced a pulse of
current in the wire each time a pole
passed the coil. Furthermore, the north
and south poles of the magnet induced
currents in opposite directions. PD
source: http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/histor
y/pixii.html
[2] Description: Erste bekannt
gewordene magneto-elektrische
Wechselstrommaschine, gebaut 1832 von
Pixii auf Anregung von Ampere; Source:
Niethammer, F.; Ein- und
Mehrphasen-Wechselstrom-Erzeuger;
Verlag S. Hirzel; Leipzig 1906 Date:
created 1906 Author: - Permission:
Hermann A. Wiese put it under public
domain An early form of an alternating
current electrical generator built by
Pixii PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Wechselstromerzeuger.jpg
[01/01/1834 AD]
[1] Early reaping machine for
harvesting grain. V900/0023 Rights
Managed Credit: SCIENCE PHOTO
LIBRARY Caption: Reaping machine.
Engraving of the first reaping machine
for harvesting grain, invented by Cyrus
Hall McCormick (1809-1884) in 1831. As
the wheel (at centre) spun, the paddles
on it pushed the crop onto a moving
cutter bar and knife. This design
feature has been retained in modern
combine harvesters although McCormick's
machine was pulled by horses rather
than being pushed. McCormick patented
his invention in 1834, made his first
sale in 1840 and moved to Chicago in
1847 to begin large-scale production.
The six million harvesters he
manufactured opened the prairie lands
to intensive agriculture, a major
factor in America's
prosperity. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.sciencephoto.com/imag
e/364617/large/V9000023-Early_reaping_ma
chine_for_harvesting_grain.-SPL.jpg
[2] New Reaper, Getreidemäher New
Reaper, Stein der Weisen 1889 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Agriculture_2.jpg
[1834 AD]
(DYUmo) (CE 1800-1884), French chemist
introduces the substitution theory (or
"Law of Substitution") which states
that hydrogen atoms (electropositive)
can be substituted by chlorine or
oxygen atoms (electronegative) in
certain organic reactions without any
drastic alteration in the structure.
(Is this theory still supported? It
seems unusual that a negatively charged
atom would replace a positively charged
atom.)
(presumably)
[1] French chemist Jean Baptiste André
Dumas (1800-1884) from English
wikipedia original text: - Magnus
Manske (164993 bytes) from
http://web4.si.edu/sil/scientific-identi
ty/display_results.cfm?alpha_sort=d PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jean_Baptiste_Andr%C3%A9_Dumas.jpg
[2] Scientist: Dumas, Jean-Baptiste
(1800 - 1884) Discipline(s):
Chemistry Print Artist: Samuel
Freeman, 1773-1857 Medium: Engraving
Original Artist: Emililen
Desmaisons, 1812-1880 Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 14.7 x 12.3 cm /
Sheet: 27.8 x 19.2 cm PD/Corel
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-D5-08a.jpg
[1834 AD]
measured using a rotating mirror.
[1] Figure from [7 591] PD
source: An Account of Some Experiments
to Measure the Velocity of Electricity
and the Duration of Electric
Light Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 124 -
1834 Author Charles
Wheatstone DOI 10.1098/rstl.1834.0031
Wheatstone_velocity.pdf 591
[2] Figure from [7 592] PD
source: An Account of Some Experiments
to Measure the Velocity of Electricity
and the Duration of Electric
Light Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 124 -
1834 Author Charles
Wheatstone DOI 10.1098/rstl.1834.0031
Wheatstone_velocity.pdf 592
[02/06/1835 AD]
physicist, invents the electrical relay
which allows a telegraph current to be
carried over long distances.
[1] In 1846, the Smithsonian Board of
Regents chose Joseph Henry as the
Institution's first
secretary. PD/Corel
source: http://www.150.si.edu/chap2/2man
.htm
[2] Description Portrait of Joseph
Henry Source
http://www.photolib.noaa.gov/bigs/per
s0124.jpg Date 1879 Author
Henry Ulke
(1821-1910) Permission (Reusing this
image) Public domain. PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Jospe
h_Henry_%281879%29.jpg
[1836 AD]
1799-1864) builds an induction coil.
[1] Nicholas Joseph Callan, Professor
of Natural Philosophy PD/Corel
source: http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekat
z/scientists/callan.html
[2] The ''Great Coil'' of Nicholas
Callan, 1837 COPYRIGHTED
source: same
[1836 AD]
1810-1882), German physiologist,
isolates and names pepsin, a substance
responsible for digestion in the
stomach. This is the first enzyme
prepared from animal tissue.
Germany
[1] Theodor Schwann Library of
Congress PD
source: http://content.answers.com/main/
content/img/scitech/HStheodo.jpg
[2] Autore: Pasquale Baroni Fonte:
foto Gonella Copyright © Museo di
Anatomia Umana ''Luigi Rolando'',
Torino olio su tela PD? COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.torinoscienza.it/img/
orig/it/s00/00/0011/000011a0.jpg
[1836 AD]
1810-1882), German physiologist,
observes the formation of yeast spores
and recognizes that fermentation of
sugar and starch is the result of a
living organism.
Belgium (verify)
[1] Theodor Schwann Library of
Congress PD
source: http://content.answers.com/main/
content/img/scitech/HStheodo.jpg
[2] Autore: Pasquale Baroni Fonte:
foto Gonella Copyright © Museo di
Anatomia Umana ''Luigi Rolando'',
Torino olio su tela PD? COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.torinoscienza.it/img/
orig/it/s00/00/0011/000011a0.jpg
[1837 AD]
[1] [t Ad for Robert Anderson electric
car (verify)] UNKNOWN
source: http://electriccarphotos.com/wp-
content/uploads/2008/12/robert-anderson-
electric-car.jpg
[1838 AD]
1784-1846), measures the parallax of a
different star.
Parallax is the difference in the
direction of an object as seen by two
widely separated points; a measurement
used to find the distance to an
object.
61 Cygni is shown to be around 6 light
years away.
Germany
[1] Example of lunar parallax:
Occultation of Pleiades by the
Moon Example of lunar parallax from 4
points on earth This is a simulated
image, combining of 4 views of the sky
and the moon's location relative to the
background stars at a single point in
time. The bright stars visible are the
star cluster Pleiades. The date March
22, 1988 was chosen because the moon
occulted stars within the pleides as
visible from North America. NOTE: This
diagram is geometrically accurate,
although not physically possible to see
since the moon was not actually above
the horizon in half the views.
Specifically you can never see the
Pleiades from the south pole! They were
just picked as extreme views from the
earth, the limit of what might be seen
from a set of four locations in a
square on a great circle and a moon
just above the horizon in all four
locations. Credit: Tom Ruen, Full Sky
Observatory * This image was
generated by my own solar system
viewing software. * Source bitmap
for projection from Nasa's Clementine
Spacecraft: o USGS: Global
simple cylindrical projection at 10
km/pixel.
(http://astrogeology.usgs.gov/Projects/C
lementine/images/albedo.simp750.jpeg) P
D
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Lunarparallax_22_3_1988.png
[2] Stellar parallax motion PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Stellarparallax2.svg
[1838 AD]
(CE 1804-1881) creates cell theory. The
principle that all living objects are
made of cells.
Germany
[1] Matthias Jakob Schleiden Library
of Congress PD
source: http://www.answers.com/Matthias+
Jakob+Schleiden+?cat=technology
[2] 01 Jan 1870 Matthias
Schleiden (Photo by Kean
Collection/Getty Images ) [t again
large side burns looks to be mid to
late 1800s] PD
source: http://www.viewimages.com/Search
.aspx?mid=50898741&epmid=1&partner=Googl
e
[01/09/1839 AD]
(DoGAR) (CE 1789-1851), reduces the
time to make a photograph from 8 hours
to 30 minutes.
[1] Description English:
Daguerreotype of Louis Daguerre in 1844
by Jean-Baptiste Sabatier-Blot (died
1881) Source Originally from
en.wikipedia; description page is/was
here. Date 2007-01-23 (first
version); 2007-01-23 (last
version) Author Jean-Baptiste
Sabatier-Blot Original uploader was
Aepryus at
en.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
image) This image is in the public
domain due to its age. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Louis_Daguerre_2.jpg
[2] Louis-Jacques-Mandé Daguerre (18
November 1787 - 10 July 1851) Source
from English Wiki Date November
1787 July 1851 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Louis_Daguerre.jpg
[07/29/1839 AD]
(photoelectric or photovoltaic effect).
This is also the first photovoltaic
cell (or "solar cell").
The development of solar cell
technology stems from the work of the
French physicist Antoine-César
Becquerel in 1839. Becquerel discovered
the photovoltaic effect while
experimenting with a solid electrode in
an electrolyte solution; he observed
that voltage developed when light
contacts the electrode. About 50 years
later, Charles Fritts constructed the
first true solar cells using junctions
formed by coating the semiconductor
selenium with an ultrathin, nearly
transparent layer of gold. The silicon
solar cell developed by Russell Ohl in
1941 will lead to more efficient solar
cells. Solar cells will be improved by
the development of orbiting vehicles
because access to light particles is
continuous in orbit and unlike
batteries, solar cells never wear out.
Solar cells are standard equipment on
all modern satellites.
France
[1] Scientist: Becquerel, Alexandre
Edmond (1820 - 1891) Discipline(s):
Physics Print Artist: Charles
Jeremie Fuhr, b.1832 Medium:
Lithograph Original Artist: Pierre
Petit, 1832-1885 Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 25.5 x 19 cm / Sheet: 30.6 x
20.1 cm PD/Corel
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-B2-07a.jpg
[2] Diagram of apparatus described by
Becquerel (1839) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.udel.edu/igert/pvcdro
m/MANUFACT/Images/BECQ.GIF
[1839 AD]
(CE 1797-1858), Swedish chemist,
discovers the element Lanthanum.
Sweden
[1] The Lanthanum metal GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Lanthanum.jpg
[2] Carl Gustav Mosander
(1797-1858), PD/Corel
source: http://www.vanderkrogt.net/eleme
nts/elem/la.html
[1839 AD]
animals and plants.
Belgium
[1] Theodor Schwann Library of
Congress PD
source: http://content.answers.com/main/
content/img/scitech/HStheodo.jpg
[2] Autore: Pasquale Baroni Fonte:
foto Gonella Copyright © Museo di
Anatomia Umana ''Luigi Rolando'',
Torino olio su tela PD? COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.torinoscienza.it/img/
orig/it/s00/00/0011/000011a0.jpg
[03/30/1842 AD]
for surgery.
[1] 1870 photograph of Crawford Long,
anesthesia pioneer PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/8c/CrawfordLong.jpg
[06/17/1842 AD]
communication (radio).
[1] In 1846, the Smithsonian Board of
Regents chose Joseph Henry as the
Institution's first
secretary. PD/Corel
source: http://www.150.si.edu/chap2/2man
.htm
[2] Description Portrait of Joseph
Henry Source
http://www.photolib.noaa.gov/bigs/per
s0124.jpg Date 1879 Author
Henry Ulke
(1821-1910) Permission (Reusing this
image) Public domain. PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Jospe
h_Henry_%281879%29.jpg
[1843 AD]
(CE 1797-1858), Swedish chemist,
identifies the elements erbium, and
terbium.
Sweden
[1] Carl Gustav Mosander
(1797-1858), PD/Corel
source: http://www.vanderkrogt.net/eleme
nts/elem/la.html
[2] Element: Yttrium Atomic Weight of
Yttrium: 88.9059 Electron
Configuration of Yttrium:
[Kr]5s14d1 Atomic Radius of Yttrium:
181 pm Melting Point of Yttrium: 1522
ºC Boiling Point of Yttrium: 3345
ºC Oxidation States of Yttrium: 3 A.
L. Allred Electronegativity of Yttrium:
1.22 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.chemicalforums.com/in
dex.php?page=periodictable#Y
[1843 AD]
(presumably)
[1] Description Samuel Colt (1814
– 1862) English: Samuel Colt,
founder of the firearms manufacturer
Colt Deutsch: Samuel Colt, Begründer
des Waffenherstellers Colt Date
Source 19th century
engraving PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/3f/SamuelColt.jpg
[1844 AD]
Karl Karlovich Klaus) (CE 1796-1864)
isolates and names "ruthenium".
[1] English: Ruthenium sample. This
image was copied from en.wikipedia.org.
The original description
was: Ruthenium sample. Photo by
RTC. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ru%2C44.jpg
[2] Name, Symbol, Number Ruthenium,
Ru, 44 Chemical series transition
metals GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ru-TableImage.png
[04/??/1845 AD]
Rosse) (CE 1800-1867), Irish astronomer
recognizes the spiral shape of spiral
galaxies (thought at the time to be
nebulae).
Parsons completes a 72 inch reflector
telescope.
Ireland
[1] Abb. 2 - Lord Rosse's drwaing of M
51 showing its spiral structure. [t
Notice that Parsons numbers stars which
appear to be part of the
galaxy] PD/Corel
source: http://www.klima-luft.de/steinic
ke/Artikel/birr/birr_e.htm
[2] en: This is the sketch made by
Lord Rosse of the Whirlpool Galaxy in
1845. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:M51Sketch.jpg
[1845 AD]
Switzerland
[1] 19th century photograph. public
domain. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Sch%C3%B6nbein.jpg
[2] Scientist: Schönbein, Christian
(1799 - 1868) Discipline(s):
Chemistry Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 8.3 x 7 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=s
[1845 AD]
acid (an organic molecule) from
inorganic molecules.
Germany
[1] Description Adolph Wilhelm
Hermann Kolbe (1818-1884) Source
unknown Date 19th century PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b1/Adolph_Kolbe.jpg
[2] Hermann Kolbe. Historia-Photo
PD/Corel
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
10412&rendTypeId=4
[09/23/1846 AD]
France)
[1] Scientist: Le Verrier, Urbain Jean
Joseph (1811 - 1877) Discipline(s):
Astronomy Print Artist: Auguste Bry,
19th C. Medium: Lithograph
Original Dimensions: Graphic: 12.5 x
10 cm / Sheet: 26.1 x 17 cm PD/Corel
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/89/Urbain_Le_Verrier.jpg
[2] Scientist: Le Verrier, Urbain
Jean Joseph (1811 -
1877) Discipline(s): Astronomy Print
Artist: E. Buechner Medium:
Engraving Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 14.5 x 13 cm / Sheet: 19.5 x
14.2 cm PD/Corel
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-L003-01a.jpg
[10/10/1846 AD]
English astronomer, is the first to see
Triton, the largest satellite of
Neptune.
England
.jpg)
[1] Picture of Triton made by Voyager 2
in 1989. [t Find original drawing from
Lassell] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Triton_%28moon%29.jpg
[2] William Lassell PD/Corel
source: http://www.klima-luft.de/steinic
ke/ngcic/persons/lassell.htm
[12/12/1846 AD]
patents a facsimile machine (fax),
which can transmit images drawn in
perforated paper (Morse code and
letters) and a perforated paper
automatic message feed system in which
holes in a paper strip complete a
circuit switching electrical current on
and off.
The annexed diagram represents a piece
of the punched paper with the symbols
of the word ''Bain''. [t from
1853] PD/Corel
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=h4oDAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA9&source=gbs_toc_r&ca
d=0_0#PPA169,M1
[1] Brain's 1843 telegraph [t from
patent? - here is shows clearly that
the message is moved vertically while
the pendulum swings
horizontally.] PD/Corel
source: http://www.hffax.de/assets/image
s/a_Bain.gif
[1846 AD]
[1] [t notice there is a lot of oxygen
trapped/stuck in the molecule, perhaps
the more oxygen in the molecule the
more
explosive] Nitroglycerin 1,2,3-trinitr
oxypropane 1,3-dinitrooxypropan-2-yl
nitrate propane-1,2,3-triyl
trinitrate IUPAC name Chemical
formula C3H5(NO3)3 Molar mass
227.0872 g/mol Shock sensitivity
high Friction sensitivity
high Density 1.6 g/cm³ at 15
°C Explosive velocity 7700 m/s RE
factor 1.50 Melting point 13.2 °C
(55.76 °F) Autoignition temperature
Decomposes at 50 to 60 °C (122 to 140
°F) Appearance Clear
yellow/colorless oily liquid PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/40/Nitroglycerin-2D-skel
etal.png
[2] Ascanio Sobrero PD/Corel
source: http://www.liberliber.it/bibliot
eca/s/sobrero/immagini/ritratto.jpg
[1847 AD]
of handwritten messages.
[1] [t Bakewell's Copying telegraph -
sending aluminum foil and receiving
paper. The strip ''C'' is used to
syncronize the receiver to the
sender.] PD/Corel
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=h4oDAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA9&source=gbs_toc_r&ca
d=0_0#PPA171,M1
[2] Bakewell 's system involved
writing or drawing on a piece of metal
foil with a special insulating ink. The
foil was then wrapped around a cylinder
(C). This cylinder formed a part of a
machine, which rotated it slowly on its
axis, as in a lathe. The cylinder
rotated at a uniform rate by means of a
clock mechanism (M). A metal stylus
driven by a screw thread (T) traveled
along the surface of the cylinder as it
turned, tracing out a path over the
complete piece of foil. Each time the
stylus crossed a line of the insulating
ink, the electrical current running
through the foil to the stylus was
interrupted. At the receiver, a similar
pendulum-driven stylus marked
chemically treated paper with an
electric current as the receiving
cylinder rotated. PD/Corel
source: http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/histor
y/bakewell_fax3.jpg
[1848 AD]
creates the absolute temperature scale,
determining -273°C to be absolute 0,
where all molecules stop moving.
Scotland
[1] Baron Kelvin, William
Thomson Library of Congress PD
source: http://content.answers.com/main/
content/img/scitech/HSbaronk.jpg
[2] Baron Kelvin, William
Thomson Graphic: 23.9 x 19.1 cm /
Sheet: 27.8 x 20.2 cm PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a0/Lord_Kelvin_photograp
h.jpg
[01/20/1849 AD]
(FUKo) (CE 1819-1868), finds 1) that an
electric arc emits the same two
spectral (D) lines that are missing in
sunlight, and 2) that an electric arc
between two charcoal electrodes absorbs
the light with the frequency of the two
D lines which darken the lines from a
light source.
[1] Reproduction of the first
daguerrotype of the Sun. The original
image was a little over 12 centimeters
in diameter. Reproduced from G. De
Vaucouleurs, Astronomical Photography,
MacMillan, 1961 (plate 1). PD/Corel
source: http://ams.astro.univie.ac.at/~n
endwich/Science/SoFi/firstsunphoto.jpg
[2] Daguerreotype of the Sun PD/Corel
source: http://ams.astro.univie.ac.at/~n
endwich/Science/SoFi/portrait.gif
[05/27/1849 AD]
change in the speed of light due to the
movement of Earth through an aether.
[1] scheme of Fizo experiment GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/55/Fizo_experiment_schem
e_ru.PNG
[2] [t Rareand early photo of portrait
not looking at camera. To me it may
possibly be a clue that hidden cameras
were in use, but also may reflect a
view that the camera is unimportant,
that cameras are everywhere, and it is
better to go on with life...not to
smile for the camera, but to go about
your life and let the many cameras
document everything...its like ...the
thrill is over for the novelty of
photography. It's perhaps a person for
the transition to the more practical
daily business of the cameras, in
particular when robots walk and
document everything. ] Hippolyte
Fizeau PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5d/Hippolyte_Fizeau.jpg
[07/23/1849 AD]
light to be 315,300 kilometers per
second, using a non-astronomical
method.
[1] Fizeau's apparatus from Arago's
''Astronomie Populaire'' PD/Corel
source: William Tobin, "The life and
science of Léon Foucault: the man who
proved the earth rotates", Cambridge
University Press, 2003
[2] Eyepiece views for Fizeau's 1849
speed of light experiment COPYRIGHTED?
source: William Tobin, "The life and
science of Léon Foucault: the man who
proved the earth rotates", Cambridge
University Press, 2003
[05/06/1850 AD]
1819-1868) shows that light moves more
slowly in water than in air.
[1] Plan view of the optical layout of
Foucault's 1850 rotating mirror
experiment. COPYRIGHTED
source: William Tobin, "The life and
science of Léon Foucault: the man who
proved the earth rotates", Cambridge
University Press, 2003
[2] Eyepiece view of air and water
Foucault 1850 experiment PD/Corel
source: William Tobin, "The life and
science of Léon Foucault: the man who
proved the earth rotates", Cambridge
University Press, 2003, p126.
[1850 AD]
electricity in nerves as 27 m/s (90
ft/s).
Königsberg, Germany
[1] Figure from 1850 paper PD/Corel
source: Helmholtz_Hermann_1850_lit1862_L
o.pdf
[2] Young Helmholtz German
physiologist and physicist Hermann
Ludwig Ferdinand Von Helmholtz (1821 -
1894). Original Publication: People
Disc - HE0174 Original Artwork: From a
daguerreotype . (Photo by Hulton
Archive/Getty Images) * by Hulton
Archive * * reference:
2641935 PD/Corel
source: http://www.jamd.com/search?asset
type=g&assetid=2641935&text=Helmholtz
[1850 AD]
electromagnetic motors but kept secret.
[1850 AD]
in size.
[02/03/1851 AD]
that the Earth rotates around its axis
using a pendulum.
[1] Faucault's pendulum demonstration
re-visited in 1902 PD/Corel
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=UbMRmyxCZmYC&pg=PA55&lpg=PA55&dq=foucau
lt+sun+daguerreotype+features&source=web
&ots=sqQtMMzhko&sig=L_EL2qJEgsbAuU5PsDuO
Dxa-NPA&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum
=2&ct=result#PPP1,M1
[2] [t rotateable table-top pendulum
illustrates principle of
inertia] PD/Corel
source: William Tobin, "The life and
science of Léon Foucault: the man who
proved the earth rotates", Cambridge
University Press, 2003
[1851 AD]
English astronomer, identifies two
satellites of Uranus (increasing the
number of moons of Uranus known at the
time to 4). Lassell names these Ariel
and Umbriel.
[1] Uranus' Moon Ariel: Valley
World Photo Credit: NASA, Voyager 2,
Copyright Calvin J.
Hamilton Explanation: What formed
Ariel's valleys? This question
presented itself when Voyager 2 passed
this satellite of Uranus in January
1986. Speculation includes that heating
caused by the ancient tides of Uranus
caused moonquakes and massive shifting
of the moon's surface. In any event, a
huge network of sunken valleys was
found to cover this frozen moon, and
some unknown material now coats the
bottoms of many of these channels.
Ariel is the second closest to Uranus
outside of Miranda, and is composed of
roughly half water ice and half rock.
Ariel was discovered by William Lassell
in 1851. PD
source: http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/ap9603
03.html
[2] Umbriel, a moon of Uranus. Photo
by Voyager PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Umbriel_moon_1.gif
[1851 AD]
1805-1872), German botanist states that
new cells arise from cell division.
Germany
[1] Hugo von Mohl, 1805-1872, aus: Hans
Stubbe:Kurze Geschichte der Genetik bis
zur Wiederentdeckung Gregor Mendels
Jena, 2. Auflage 1965. Quellenangabe
dort: aus Geschichte der Mikroskopie,
Bd. 1, Biologie. Herausgeber H. Freund
und A. Berg, Umschau- Verlag
Frankfurt/Main 1963 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Hugo_von_mohl.jpg
[2] Hugo von Mohl � Peter v.
Sengbusch - Impressum Das Werk
Botanik online - Die Internetlehre -
THE INTERNET HYPERTEXTBOOK
einschlie�lich aller seiner Teile
ist urheberrechtlich gesch�tzt.
Jede Verwertung au�erhalb der
engen Grenzen des Urheberrechtsgesetzes
ohne Zustimmung des Rechteinhabers ist
unzul�ssig. Das gilt insbesondere
f�r Vervielf�ltigungen,
�bersetzungen und die
Einspeicherung und Verarbeitung in
Datenverarbeitungssystemen zwecks
kommerzieller Nutzung. Bei Kopien
f�r nichtkommerzielle Zwecke ist
diese Copyright-Notiz der Kopie
anzuf�gen. PD/Corel
source: http://www.biologie.uni-hamburg.
de/b-online/d01/mohl.htm
[01/07/1852 AD]
gas-filled evacuated tubes.
[1] Figures 1 to 10 show the spots and
rings in the order referred to: it
should be observed that printed figures
give but a very imperfect notion of the
actual effects. Fig 11 is the coil
apparatus, the contact breaker being in
front. Fig. 12. The air-pump, of a
construction which I proposed many
years ago, and have found most useful
for electrical or chemical experiments
on gases. P. An imperforate piston,
with a conical end, which, when pressed
down, fits accurately the end of the
tube, the apex touching the valve V,
which opens outwards. A. Aperture for
the air to rush from the receiver when
the piston has been drawn beyond
it. B. Bladder containing the gas to
be experimented on. The piston-rod
works air-tight in a collar of
leathers, and the operation of the pump
will be easily understood without
further description. If it be
required to examine the gas after
experiment, a bladder, or tube leading
to a pneumatic trough, can be attached
at the extrmeity over the valve V. [5
p101] PD
source: http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekat
z/scientists/grove.htm Issue Volume
139 -
1849 Pages 49-59 DOI 10.1098/rstl.1849
.0005 Grove_W_R_1849.pdf p101
[2] Sir William Robert Grove
(1811-1896), British scientist. PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Willi
am_Robert_Grove.jpg
[05/10/1852 AD]
1825-1899), English chemist, creates
the "theory of valence", the theory
that each type of atom has a fixed
capacity for combining with other
atoms.
England
[1] [t table from Frankland 1852
paper] PD/Corel
source: Frankland_Edward_1852.pdf
[2] [t table from Frankland 1852
paper] PD/Corel
source: Frankland_Edward_1852.pdf
[1852 AD]
[1] Elisha Otis Avaliable at
http://www.otis.com/otis150/images/displ
ay/1,2343,2039,00.gif PD
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
3274&rendTypeId=4
[2] Elisha Graves Otis (1811-1861)
invented a safety device in 1852 that
made PD
source: http://arkadien.org/scientists/E
lisha%20Graves2.jpg
[1855 AD]
creates parkesine plastic and sells
plastic objects.
plant) Pembrey, South Wales,
England
[1] A showcase of colourful plastics
was displayed at the 1862 London
International Exhibition. Although
Vulcanite had been shown by both
Hancock and Goodyear at the 1851 Great
Exhibition, this was the first time
that a colourful material that did not
rely on a surface finish or dye had
been put on public display.
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.plastiquarian.com/par
kesine.htm
[2] The following pictures show
perhaps some of those original exhibits
and justify Parkes' optimism and the
award of a prize medal ''for excellence
of product''. 1862 London
exhibit COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.plastiquarian.com/par
kesine.htm
[03/24/1857 AD]
the sound vibrating a stylus that draws
onto paper.
[1] Figure from Leon Scott's 03/24/1857
patent of the phonautograph CC
source: http://www.firstsounds.org/publi
c/First-Sounds-Working-Paper-02.pdf
[2] Description Edouard-Léon Scott
de Martinville.jpg Portrait of
French typographer Édouard-Léon Scott
de Martinville (1817-1879), inventor of
the phonautograph. Date 19th
century Source
http://www.evolutionofsound.org/con
tent/biog/leonscott.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/33/Edouard-L%C3%A9on_Sco
tt_de_Martinville.jpg
[12/27/1857 AD]
1801-1868), German mathematician and
physicist uses a magnet to move an
electric arc in a evacuated tube.
Germany
[1] rom here Source
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollecti
ons/hst/scientific-identity/CF/display_r
esults.cfm?alpha_sort=p Scientist:
Plucker, Julius (1801 -
1868) Discipline(s): Mathematics ;
Physics Print Artist: Rudolf
Hoffmann, fl. ca. 1840 Medium:
Lithograph Original Artist:
Schafgans Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 19 x 15 cm / Sheet: 33.1 x 23
cm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Julius_Pl%C3%BCcker.jpg
[2] The Cathode Ray Deflecting tube
demonstrates the influence of a
magnetic field to the electron beam.
The visible beam appears on the
aluminum sheet covered with
phosphor, will bent away from the
center when a magnet is held near
the tube. This phenomena was
discovered by Julius Plücker and
Johann Wilhelm Hittorf. Plücker
published it in the Poggendorffs
annalen der Physik und Chemie
1858. and Crookes Cathode Ray
Deflecting tube. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://members.chello.nl/~h.dijk
stra19/page7.html
[07/01/1858 AD]
1809-1882) and Alfred Russel Wallace
(CE 1823-1913) first publicly describe
the theory of evolution by natural
selection (in the "Journal of the
Linnaean Society").
England
[1] ''Charles Darwin, aged 51.''
Scanned from Karl Pearson, The Life,
Letters, and Labours of Francis Galton.
Photo originally from the 1859 or
1860. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/42/Charles_Darwin_aged_5
1.jpg
[2] Charles Darwin as a 7-year old boy
in 1816 The seven-year-old Charles
Darwin in 1816, one year before his
mother's death. [t A rare smile, there
are not many photos of Darwin
smiling.] PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/6/6c/Charles_Darwin_1816.jpg
[09/23/1859 AD]
1811-1877) finds that the perihelion
(the point of the orbit nearest the
Sun) of Mercury advances 38 seconds of
arc per century.
[1] Scientist: Le Verrier, Urbain Jean
Joseph (1811 - 1877) Discipline(s):
Astronomy Print Artist: Auguste Bry,
19th C. Medium: Lithograph
Original Dimensions: Graphic: 12.5 x
10 cm / Sheet: 26.1 x 17 cm PD/Corel
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/89/Urbain_Le_Verrier.jpg
[2] Scientist: Le Verrier, Urbain
Jean Joseph (1811 -
1877) Discipline(s): Astronomy Print
Artist: E. Buechner Medium:
Engraving Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 14.5 x 13 cm / Sheet: 19.5 x
14.2 cm PD/Corel
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-L003-01a.jpg
[10/20/1859 AD]
spectra of light can be used to
determine the atomic composition of a
substance.
Germany
[1] Bunsen-Kirchhoff spectroscope with
the Bunsen burner (labeled D), from
Annalen der Physik (1860). Chemical
Heritage Foundation
Collections. PD/Corel
source: http://www.chemheritage.org/clas
sroom/chemach/images/lgfotos/04periodic/
bunsen-kirchhoff2.jpg
[2] [t Clearly and early spectroscope,
is this from Bunsen?] PD/Corel
source: http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekat
z/scientists/bunsen_spectrometer.jpg
[11/22/1859 AD]
1809-1882), English naturalist,
publishes "On the Origin of Species by
Means of Natural Selection, or the
Preservation of Favoured Races in the
Struggle for Life".
There are two major parts to the theory
of evolution by natural selection. The
first is natural selection, in which
those bodies that survive are more well
adapted to their environment, and the
second is the descent from a common
ancestor. This theory of descent from a
common ancestor, Darwin calls
"descent", will only be called
"evolution" by Darwin in the last 1872
edition of the "Origin of Species".
[1] Origin of Species title
page PD/Corel
source: 1859. On the origin of species
by means of natural selection, or the
preservation of favoured races in the
struggle for life. 1st ed. p.
http://darwin-online.org.uk/contents.htm
l#books {Darwin_1859_Origin_F373.pdf}
[2] ''Charles Darwin, aged 51.''
Scanned from Karl Pearson, The Life,
Letters, and Labours of Francis Galton.
Photo originally from the 1859 or
1860. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/42/Charles_Darwin_aged_5
1.jpg
[1859 AD]
invents the first successful
(direct-acting) gas combustion engine.
[1] Lenoir motor in the Musée des Arts
et Métiers, Paris PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/7d/Lenoir_Motor_2.jpg
[2] Jean Joseph Etienne
Lenoir PD/Corel
source: http://www.tschoepe.de/auktion47
/bilder/frankreich/Moteurs_Lenoir_Photo.
jpg
[04/16/1860 AD]
identifies cesium, the first element to
be discovered spectroscopically.
Germany
[1] 1860 Bunsen Kirchhoff
figures ''Chemische Analyse durch
Spectralbeobachtungen'', Annalen der
Physik, Volume 189, Issue 7, (1861),
pp337-381. PD/Corel
source: Bunsen_Kirchhoff_Cesium_Rubidium
USGOV.jpg)
[2] Pollucite (Caesium
mineral) Source:
http://resourcescommittee.house.gov/subc
ommittees/emr/usgsweb/photogallery/
; PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f8/Pollucite%28CesiumMin
eral%29USGOV.jpg
[1860 AD]
molecule mimics muscles in contracting
under electric potential.
[1860 AD]
micrometer in size. This microphone
transmitter uses light particles to
transmit sounds to distant receivers.
[02/25/1861 AD]
identifies rubidium from its spectrum.
Germany
[1] 1860 Bunsen Kirchhoff
figures PD/Corel
source: Bunsen_Kirchhoff_Cesium_Rubidium
[2] Pollucite (Caesium
mineral) Source:
http://resourcescommittee.house.gov/subc
ommittees/emr/usgsweb/photogallery/
; PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f8/Pollucite%28CesiumMin
eral%29USGOV.jpg
[10/26/1861 AD]
telephone. Sound converted to
electricity and back to sound again.
Sound can
be sent farther as electric current in
a wire than mechanically in air and
travels silently.
and cabinet in Garnier's Institute,
Friedrichsdorf, demonstrated before
Physical Society) Frankfort,
Germany
[1] Drawing of Philip Reiss telephone
used for 10/26/1861 demonstration
before Physical Society in Frankfort,
Germany. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=Fdpuup7RSrUC&pg=PA110&lpg=PA110&dq=%22g
alvanic+music%22&source=bl&ots=XSKEE-YQX
1&sig=LnqVekN9DrlsZbrt8uQvjga8znk&hl=en&
ei=ze-eSqviJYOgswPdgpSCDg&sa=X&oi=book_r
esult&ct=result&resnum=5#v=onepage&q=%22
galvanic%20music%22&f=false
[2] portrait of Philip Reiss From
Silvanus Thompson: ''Reis is here
represented as holding in his hand the
telephone with which he had a few days
preceding (May 11, 1862) achieved such
success at his lecture before the
Freies Deutsches Hochstift (Free German
Institute) in Frankfort. '' PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=YkHu_MiyFSkC&printsec=frontcover&dq=phi
lip+reis+inventor+of+the+telephone#v=one
page&q=&f=false
[1861 AD]
(CE 1821-1895) understands and draws
double and triple chemical bonds.
Germany
[1] presumably from Chemische Studien
I PD/Corel
source: http://www.kfki.hu/chemonet/hun/
olvaso/histchem/mol/keplet.gif
[2] [t compared to modern
form] Molecular structural formulae, a
few of the many appearing for the first
time in Loschmidt's 1861 booklet,1
Chemische Studien I. Among its
innovations are the depictions of
double and triple carbon bonds for
ethylene and acetylene; the structure
of acetic acid; a correct prediction
for cyclopropane 21 years before it was
made; and the structures of benzoic
acid and aniline, two aromatic
molecules with benzene-like rings.
Loschmidt's role in the later discovery
that benzene itself is a monocyclic
six-carbon structure is still being
debated by historians. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://scitation.aip.org/journal
s/doc/PHTOAD-ft/vol_54/iss_3/images/45_1
fig4.jpg
[1861 AD]
estimates the size of a molecule to be
1 nm.
Germany
[1] Loschmidt, Johann Joseph (1821 -
1895). PD/Corel
source: http://www.fisicanet.com.ar/biog
rafias/cientificos/l/img/loschmidt.jpg
[2] # Johann Josef Loschmidt
(1821–1895) # aus:
http://www.loschmidt.cz/loadframe.html?p
hotos.html, PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c6/429px-Johann_Josef_Lo
schmidt.jpeg
[1861 AD]
Institution) London, England
[1] [t Note: This cannot be a
photograph from 1861 - Maxwell
apparently never created a color
photograph in the sense of a single
plate or paper with a multi-color
image, but made 3 glass plates. So this
is a digitized color photo of the
projection of those three plates. The
first color [photograph being created,
at least publicly by: introduced in
1907 by A. Lumiere (eb1911
photography)] wikipedia: English:
Tartan Ribbon, photograph taken by
James Clerk Maxwell in 1861. Considered
the first colour photograph. Maxwell
had the photographer Thomas Sutton
photograph a tartan ribbon three times,
each time with a different colour
filter over the lens. The three images
were developed and then projected onto
a screen with three different
projectors, each equipped with the same
colour filter used to take its image.
When brought into focus, the three
images formed a full colour image. The
three photographic plates now reside in
a small museum at 14 India Street,
Edinburgh, the house where Maxwell was
born. Source Scanned from The
Illustrated History of Colour
Photography, Jack H. Coote, 1993. ISBN
0-86343-380-4. Date 1861 Author
James Clerk Maxwell (original
picture) ; scan by User:Janke. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/7f/Tartan_Ribbon.jpg
[2] James Clerk Maxwell. The Library
of Congress. PD/GOV
source: "Henri Victor Regnault",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p586.
[1861 AD]
lines.
(presumably)
[1] Thallium Source
http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bild:Thalli
um_1.jpg Date March 2006 Author
Tomihahndorf PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/36/Thallium.jpg
[2] Image by Daniel Mayer or
GreatPatton and released under terms of
the GNU FDL GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1a/Tl-TableImage.png
[1861 AD]
artificial muscles.
[11/04/1862 AD]
(presumably)
[1] Patent for first Gatlin
gun PD/Corel
source: http://patimg1.uspto.gov/.piw?Do
cid=00036836&homeurl=http%3A%2F%2Fpatft.
uspto.gov%2Fnetacgi%2Fnph-Parser%3FSect1
%3DPTO1%2526Sect2%3DHITOFF%2526d%3DPALL%
2526p%3D1%2526u%3D%25252Fnetahtml%25252F
PTO%25252Fsrchnum.htm%2526r%3D1%2526f%3D
G%2526l%3D50%2526s1%3D0036,836.PN.%2526O
S%3DPN%2F0036,836%2526RS%3DPN%2F0036,836
&PageNum=&Rtype=&SectionNum=&idkey=NONE&
Input=View+first+page
[2] photograph of Richard Jordan
Gatling PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a8/Richard_Jordan_Gatlin
g.jpg
[1862 AD]
builds the first gas (direct-acting)
combustion powered carriage (car).
[1] Voiture de JEAN JOSEPH ETIENNE
LENOIR - 1860: PD/Corel
source: http://www.forum-auto.com/upload
s/200510/gv_creations_1129490448_voiture
_jean_joseph_etienne_lenoir___1860.jpg
[2] Lenoir motor in the Musée des
Arts et Métiers, Paris PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/7d/Lenoir_Motor_2.jpg
[02/18/1863 AD]
elements to those from stars (other
than the Sun).
[1] ''The position in the stellar
spectra corresponding to that of
Fraunhofer's line D, from which the
others are measured, has been obtained
by coincidence with a sodium line, the
position of which in the apparatus was
compared directly with the line D in
the solar spectrum. The lines in the
drawings against which a mark is placed
have been measured.'' PD/Corel
source: http://journals.royalsociety.org
/content/025553r323116j26/fulltext.pdf
[2] William Huggins PD/Corel
source: https://eee.uci.edu/clients/bjbe
cker/ExploringtheCosmos/hugginsport.jpg
[1863 AD]
spectroscopic analysis.
Germany
[1] Ferdinand Reich
(1799-1882) PD/Corel
source: http://www.jergym.hiedu.cz/~cano
vm/objevite/objev/rei.htm
[2] Hieronymus Theodor Richter
(1824-1898) PD/Corel
source: same
[09/08/1864 AD]
(exo-nebulae) examined, and shown to be
composed of gas from spectral analysis.
[1] The Cat's Eye Nebula from
Hubble Credit: NASA, ESA, HEIC, and
The Hubble Heritage Team (STScI/AURA)
PD/Corel
source: http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/image/
0705/catseye2_hst.jpg
[2] Draco's spectrum ...The riddle of
the nebulae was solved. The answer,
which had come to us in the light
itself, read: Not an aggregation of
stars, but a luminous gas.
--Huggins (1897) PD/Corel
source: https://eee.uci.edu/clients/bjbe
cker/ExploringtheCosmos/neblinesdraco.jp
g
[01/11/1865 AD]
(endo-nebulae) examined and shown to be
composed of gas from spectral analysis.
[1] Hubble Captures the Orion
Nebula PD
source: http://www.nasa.gov/images/conte
nt/149188main_orion_nebula.jpeg
[2] Orion spectrum PD/Corel
source: William Huggins, "The Science
Papers of William Huggins".
[1865 AD]
ratio of inheritance of a trait).
Austria (now: Brno, the Czech
Republic)
[1] Gregor Mendel Source
http://www.malaspina.com/jpg/mendel.j
pg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/87/Gregor_Mendel_portrai
t.jpg
[2] [t Gregor Mendel] PD/Corel
source: http://joefelso.files.wordpress.
com/2007/04/mendel2.jpg
[1865 AD]
this is a CO2 laser. These devices are
instantly recognized as dangerous and
useful weapons, being much faster than
a metal projectile gun, and can be
developed to be much smaller than a
projectile gun. In addition, the
location of the weapon is difficult to
determine. The laser probably quickly
is strong enough to cut through flesh,
and as is public now, can cut through
even metal. Like microphones, cameras,
neuron readers and writers, these laser
devices will be reduced to micrometer
size, and then nanometer size, and
secretly distributed by the millions
throughout the planet earth.
[1866 AD]
[1] [t get better image of
dynamite] English: Diagram of
dynamite. A. Sawdust (or any
other type of absorbent material)
soaked in nitroglycerin. B.
Protective coating surrounding the
explosive material. C. Blasting
cap. D. Wire connected to the
blasting cap. CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/65/Dynamite-5.svg
[2] Alfred Bernhard Nobel. ©
Bettmann/Corbis PD/Corel
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
20999&rendTypeId=4
[04/23/1868 AD]
1824-1910) calculates the (radial)
velocity of a nebula and the star
Sirius relative to the Earth using the
Doppler shift of spectral lines.
Huggins measures that Sirius is moving
away from the Sun with a velocity of
29.4 miles per second.
[1] William Huggins PD/Corel
source: https://eee.uci.edu/clients/bjbe
cker/ExploringtheCosmos/hugginsport.jpg
[2] William Huggins' star-spectroscope
PD/Corel
source: https://eee.uci.edu/clients/bjbe
cker/ExploringtheCosmos/hugginsspectrosc
opeb.jpg
[11/23/1868 AD]
[1] English: Early color photo of Agen,
France, by Louis Ducos du Hauron, 1877.
The cathedral in the scene is the
Cathédrale Saint-Caprais d'Agen.
[1] Source ? Date 1877 Author
Louis Ducos du Hauron (1837 –
1920) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/08/Duhauron1877.jpg
[2] Louis Ducos du Hauron paved way
for modern three-color photography.
''Cinémathèque Française'' PD/Corel
source: http://www.marillier.nom.fr/coll
odions/PGH/pics/photowasborn06.jpg
[03/06/1869 AD]
Petersburg, Russia
[1] Table from abstract of 1869
paper: Zeitschrift für Chemie 12,
405-406 (1869); PD/Corel
source: http://www.rsc.org/education/tea
chers/learnnet/periodictable/pre16/devel
op/mendel4.jpg
[2] Draft for first version of
Mendeleev's periodic table (17 February
1869). Courtesy Oesper Collection,
University of Cincinnati. PD/Corel
source: http://www.chemheritage.org/clas
sroom/chemach/images/lgfotos/04periodic/
meyer-mendeleev1.jpg
[1870 AD]
in size.
[09/08/1871 AD]
[1] Dr. Richard Leach MADDOX
(1816-1902) PD/Corel
source: http://webh01.ua.ac.be/elmc/webs
ite_FL/im_gesch/maddox.gif
[2] Richard Leach Maddox, 1816 -
1902 PD/Corel
source: http://www.cotianet.com.br/photo
/hist/Images/maddox.jpg
[01/01/1872 AD]
invented by Charles Withington. The
binder is a farm implement that
improves upon the reaper. In addition
to cutting the small-grain crop, the
binder also ties the stems into small
bundles, or sheaves. These sheaves are
then 'shocked' into conical stooks,
resembling small tipis, to allow the
grain to dry for several days before
being threshed.
[1] McCormick Harvester and Binder of
1876 at work in the field -the first
practical self-binder ever
built Source McCormick Reaper
Centennial Source Material
(International Harvester Company:
Chicago) 1931 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:McCormick_Harvester_and_Binder.gif
[02/12/1873 AD]
into electricity (photoelectric
effect).
[1] Willoughby Smith was an electrical
engineer working for telegraph
companies, but his the most important
contribution to science was discovery
of photo-conductivity of selenium in
1873. PD/Corel
source: http://www.geocities.com/neveyaa
kov/electro_science/smith1.jpg
[2] Closed lid - high
resistance, open lid - low
resistance PD/Corel
source: http://www.geocities.com/neveyaa
kov/electro_science/smith_experiment.jpg
[1874 AD]
spectroscopy.
(presumably)
[1] English: Crystals of 99.999%
gallium. Slovenščina: Kristaliziran
galij. Crystals of 99.999% gallium,
grown and photographed by myself in
February 2003. These particular
crystals took about 45 minutes to grow,
sitting in a plastic dish near a cool
window. The lumpiness on the surface
of these crystals is caused mainly by
me shifting the dish around to monitor
the progression of the crystal growth.
Crystals (of any material) need to be
totally undisturbed in order to grow
perfect, large, smooth facets. Each
time I moved the liquid around, it
interrupted the crystal growth. The
''lumps'' are actually tiny crystals
that started growing on the larger
facets, but got smoothed over due to
the liquid motion. If I had placed
this in a vibration-damped sandbox
(similar to a holography table) and not
disturbed it, the crystals would have
been even larger, more coherent, and
more stunning ;) GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0c/Gallium1_640x480.jpg
[2] Description François Lecoq de
Boisbaudran, discoverer of gallium,
samarium, and dysprosium (died 28 May
1912) Source
http://pagesperso-orange.fr/paysdaigre/
hpa/textes/biographies/images/lecocq.jpg
Date Before 28 May 1912 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/69/Lecoq_de_Boisbaudran.
jpg
[08/28/1875 AD]
reading" (the electricity in nerve
cells measured)(verify) and the
earliest published recording of sensory
evoked electric potentials measured on
the brain.
[1] Text of: Richard Caton, ''The
Electric Currents of the Brain'',
British Medical Journal, 1875, V2,
p278. http://www.bmj.com/content/2/765/
257.full.pdf+html {Caton_Richard_187508
28.pdf} PD
source: http://www.bmj.com/content/2/765
/257.full.pdf+html
[1876 AD]
Germany
[1] The first Linde refrigeration
machine ever sold, an improvement on
the original model from 1871 started up
in 1877 at the Creher Brewery in
Trieste (now Italy) PD/Corel
(presumably)
source: http://www.linde.com/internation
al/web/linde/like35lindecom.nsf/reposito
rybyalias/pdf_ch_chronicle/$file/chronic
le_e%5B1%5D.pdf
[2] * by Frederick Muller *
Reference: 3278404 circa 1890:
German scientist Karl Paul Gottfried
Linde. (Photo by Frederick
Muller/Hulton Archive/Getty
Images) PD/Corel
source: http://www.jamd.com/image/g/3278
404
[12/24/1877 AD]
loud (made audible).
USA
[1] Original Edison Tin Foil
Phonograph. Photo courtesy of U.S.
Department of the Interior, National
Park Service, Edison National Historic
Site. source:
http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/edhtml/edcyl
dr.html PD
source: http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/edht
ml/tinfoil.jpg
[2] Edison's 12/24/1877 patent for
improvements to the phonograph. PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=SWg_AAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4#v
=onepage&q=&f=false
[1878 AD]
Marignac (morEnYoK) (CE 1817-1894),
Swiss chemist, identifies the rare
earth element yterrbium.
Switzerland
[1] Description Jean Charles
Galissard de Marignac (1817–1894)
Swiss chemist who discoverered
ytterbium in 1878 and codiscovered
gadolinium in 1880. Source Ecole
Nationale Supérieure des Mines de
Paris Date ~ 1850 Author
unknown PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c4/Galissard_de_Marignac
.jpg
[2] Ytterbium sample. Photo by
RTC. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/97/Yb%2C70.jpg
[1878 AD]
Marignac (morEnYoK) (CE 1817-1894),
Swiss chemist, and P.-É. Lecoq de
Boisbaudran identify the element
gadolinium.
Switzerland
[1] Description Jean Charles
Galissard de Marignac (1817–1894)
Swiss chemist who discoverered
ytterbium in 1878 and codiscovered
gadolinium in 1880. Source Ecole
Nationale Supérieure des Mines de
Paris Date ~ 1850 Author
unknown PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c4/Galissard_de_Marignac
.jpg
[2] Slovenščina: Gadolinij v
epruveti. This image was copied from
en.wikipedia.org. The original
description was: Gadolinium
sample. Photo by RTC. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/fe/Gd%2C64.jpg
[1878 AD]
[1] Joseph Wilson Swan 1828 -
1914 PD/Corel
source: http://www.hevac-heritage.org/ha
ll_of_fame/lighting_&_electrical/joseph_
wilson_swan_s1.jpg
[2] Joseph Swan 19th century (or
early 20th century) photograph. public
domain. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/1/1c/Jswan.jpg
[1878 AD]
synthetic fabric to come into common
use, synthetic silk (rayon).
[1] n particolare ingrandito di una
gonna in rayon. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/00/Rayon_closeup_1.jpg
[2] Hilaire Bernigaud PD/Corel
source: http://www.scienceandsociety.co.
uk/Pix/PER/07/10284307_T.JPG
[03/24/1879 AD]
spectroscopically.
Sweden.
[1] Scandium sample. Photo by
RTC. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/cc/Sc%2C21.jpg
[2] English: Picture of Lars Fredrik
Nilson, the Swedish chemist who
discovered scandium Source Nilson
Memorial Lecture in the Journal of the
Chemical Society, volume 77, between
pages 1276 and 1277 Date
1900 Author Otto
Petterson Permission (Reusing this
image) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/9f/Nilson_Lars_Fredrik.j
pg
[1879 AD]
spectroscopy.
(presumably)
[1] Summary: Samarium in a test tube
under Argon gas Source: German
wikipedia
(http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bild:Samar
ium_1.jpg); This imageis already under
Free license. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/2/21/427px-Samarium_1.jpg
[2] Description François Lecoq de
Boisbaudran, discoverer of gallium,
samarium, and dysprosium (died 28 May
1912) Source
http://pagesperso-orange.fr/paysdaigre/
hpa/textes/biographies/images/lecocq.jpg
Date Before 28 May 1912 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/69/Lecoq_de_Boisbaudran.
jpg
[1879 AD]
identified using spectroscopy.
Sweden.
[1] Holmium sample. Photo by
RTC. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6c/Ho%2C67.jpg
[2] Thulium sample. Photo by
RTC. GNU English: Picture of Per
Theodor Cleve, the Swedish chemist and
geologist Source Page 39 of
Svenskt
porträttgalleri http://books.google.co
m/books?id=XL0DAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA39&dq=Per+T
eodor+Cleve&lr=&as_brr=1#PPA39,M1 Date
1903 Author Albin
Hildebrand PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a7/Tm%2C69.jpg
[06/03/1880 AD]
photons.
C., USA
[1] Alexander Bell's Photophone Patent
of 08/28/1880 figures 1 and 2 PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=VpdyAAAAEBAJ&printsec=drawing&zoom=4#v=
onepage&q=&f=false
[2] (presumably Alexander Graham Bell
with his ''Photophone'') PD
source: http://www.utdallas.edu/~rms0230
00/photophone.jpg
[1880 AD]
[1] Beschreibung Jacques Curie
(1856-1941, links) mit seinem Bruder
Pierre Curie (1859-1906) und seinen
Eltern Eugène Curie (1827-1910) und
Sophie-Claire Depouilly
(1832-1897) Quelle Françoise
Giroud: Marie Curie. A Life. Holmes &
Meier, New York London 1986, ISBN
0-8419-0977-6, nach Seite 138 Urheber
bzw. Nutzungsrechtinhaber
unbekannt Datum
1878 Genehmigung
Bild-PD-alt-100 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/de/3/3a/Curie%2C_Jacques_und_Pierr
e_mit_Eltern.jpg
[2] Pierre Curie UNKNOWN
source: http://www.espci.fr/esp/MUSE/ima
ge002.gif
[1880 AD]
micrometer in size. "Microcamera"
transmitter developed but kept secret.
This device uses light particles to
transmit images to distant receivers.
[1880 AD]
transmitter is less than 1 micrometer
in size. "Micro-neuronreader" or
perhaps "micro-thought-camera"
transmitter developed but kept secret.
This device uses light particles to
transmit thought-images and
thought-sounds to distant receivers.
[1880 AD]
in size. "Micro-neuron-writer" or
perhaps "Micro-thought-writer" devices
developed but kept secret. This device
uses x particles (xray) to remotely
write to neurons (make neurons fire)
using very precise directional
movement.
[1880 AD]
size.
[1880 AD]
(rNTGeN) (CE 1845-1923), German
physicist measures the physical
contraction of rubber under electric
potential. This is an early form of
artificial muscle.
Artificial muscles that are the
equivalent to the muscles of living
objects are currently still unknown
publicly and wait for the future.
Germany
[1] Figures 1 and 2 from: W. C.
Röntgen, ''Ueber die durch
Electricität bewirkten Form- und
Volumenänderungen von dielectrischen
Körpern'', Annalen der Physik, Volume
247, Issue 13, pages 771–786,
1880. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/do
i/10.1002/andp.18802471304/abstract {Ro
ntgen_Wilhelm_Conrad_188009xx.pdf}
English: ''About the changes in
shape and volume of dielectrics caused
by electricity'' PD
source: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/d
oi/10.1002/andp.18802471304/abstract
[2] English: Photo of Wilhelm Conrad
Röntgen. Cleaned up version of
http://images.google.com/hosted/life/l?i
mgurl=6b3da250c6b5560f Source
unknown source Date 1900 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/71/Roentgen2.jpg
[01/05/1881 AD]
electronically and printed.
[1] Image of gas flame focused on
transmitter figure 3 PD/Corel
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v23/n589/pdf/023344a0.pdf
[2] Image as reproduced by receiver
figure 4 PD/Corel
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v23/n589/pdf/023344a0.pdf
[1881 AD]
(mIKuLSuN) or (mIKLSuN) (CE 1852-1931),
German-US physicist designs an
interferometer ("interferential
refractometer") and uses it to find
that a beam of light, split into 2
directions in a 90 degree angle, and
reflected back onto each other do not
interfere with each other as would be
expected if light is a wave in an ether
medium, therefore casting doubt on the
theory of an aether and the wave-theory
of light and opening the way for a
re-examination of the light as a
particle theory.
Germany
[1] Figure from Michelson's 1881
paper PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=S_kQAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edi
tions:0ocaawEfuqDVXP3-kAaE4N&lr=#v=onepa
ge&q=michelson&f=false
[2] Description Albert Abraham
Michelson2.jpg Photograph of Nobel
Laureate Albert Abraham
Michelson. Date 2006-09-27
(original upload date) Source
Photograph is a higher quality
version of the public domain image
available from
AstroLab http://astro-canada.ca/_en/pho
to690.php?a4313_michelson1 PD
source: Michelson_Albert_Abraham_Michels
on2.jpg
[1883 AD]
[1] Joseph Wilson Swan 1828 -
1914 PD/Corel
source: http://www.hevac-heritage.org/ha
ll_of_fame/lighting_&_electrical/joseph_
wilson_swan_s1.jpg
[2] Joseph Swan 19th century (or
early 20th century) photograph. public
domain. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/1/1c/Jswan.jpg
[1883 AD]
(Induction motor).
[1] Image from Tesla patent 391,968
submitted: 10/12/1887 ELECTRO-MAGNETIC
MOTOR http://www.google.com/patents?id=
z5FhAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=&f
=false PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=z5FhAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=&
f=false
[2] Description Tesla
young.jpg English: The image of
en:Nikola Tesla (1856-1943) at age
23. Date image dated: circa
1878 original upload date:
2005-12-02 transfer date: 17:03, 29
July 2008 (UTC) Source Original
downloaded from
http://www.tesla-symp06.org/nikola_tesla
.htm Author Original uploader was
Antidote at en.wikipedia Transferred
from en.wikipedia by
User:emerson7. Permission (Reusing
this file) This image is in the public
domain PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/60/Tesla_young.jpg
[05/23/1885 AD]
communication. First radio
communication. Sending and receiving of
a message using light particles (by
wireless, radio, electro-static
induction).
USA
[1] From Edison's 05/23/1885
patent ''Means for Transmitting
Signals Electrically'' PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=XTtmAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4#v
=onepage&q=&f=false
[2] From Edison's 05/23/1885
patent balloon transceiver
(repeater) ''Means for Transmitting
Signals Electrically'' PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=XTtmAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4#v
=onepage&q=&f=false
[1885 AD]
(PrAZEODiMEuM) and Neodymium
(nEODiMEuM) identified.
[1]
http://images-of-elements.com/praseodymi
um.php and position on periodic
table CC
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pra
seodymium
[2] Karl Auer von Welsbach
(1858-1929) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f7/Auer_von_Welsbach.jpg
[06/26/1886 AD]
Paris, France
[1] Henri Moissan (1852-1907) PD
source: http://www.shp-asso.org/albums/p
ortrait01/Moissan.jpg
[2] Fluorine sample (gas, doesn't look
like much). GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f8/F%2C9.jpg
[1886 AD]
spectroscopy.
(presumably)
[1] This image was copied from
en.wikipedia.org. The original
description was: English: Dysprosium
sample. Slovenščina: Disprozij v
epruveti. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/17/Dy%2C66.jpg
[2] Description François Lecoq de
Boisbaudran, discoverer of gallium,
samarium, and dysprosium (died 28 May
1912) Source
http://pagesperso-orange.fr/paysdaigre/
hpa/textes/biographies/images/lecocq.jpg
Date Before 28 May 1912 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/69/Lecoq_de_Boisbaudran.
jpg
[1886 AD]
isolated.
Germany
[1] elementares Germanium Source:
German Wikipedia, original upload 3.
Sep 2004 by Gibe (selfmade) GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5e/Germanium.jpg
[2] Description Picture of German
chemist Clemens Winkler (who died in
1904) Source Edgar Fahs Smith
Collection Date Before
1904 Author PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/9d/Winkler_Clemens.jpg
[03/04/1887 AD]
by a gasoline combustion engine.
[1] Gottlieb Daimler’s First
Automobile (March 8, 1886) ©
Bildarchiv Preußischer
Kulturbesitz COPYRIGHTED
source: http://germanhistorydocs.ghi-dc.
org/images/20007006-r.jpg
[2] First motorcycle by Gottlieb
Daimler and Wilhelm Maybach (1885) (see
de:Deutsches Zweirad- und NSU-Museum),
2006, by J. Köhler Description
First motorcycle called
''Reitwagen'' by Gottlieb Daimler and
Wilhelm Maybach (1885) (264 cm³,
Einzylinder-Viertakt-Motor, 0,5 PS,
Glührohrzündung,
Luftkühlung) Source Photo taken by
myself Date 28. December
2006 Author Joachim
Köhler Permission (Reusing this
image) By courtesy of ''Deutsches
Zweirad- und NSU-Museum'' (e-Mail
17.08.2006 13:14) - With many thanks to
Ms. Dumas & Ms. Grams GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b3/ZweiRadMuseumNSU_Reit
wagen.JPG
[03/??/1887 AD]
specific ranges of frequencies of light
particle beams to be filtered).
Germany
[1] Figure 6 from Hertz's March 1893
paper ''On Very Rapid
Oscillations'' PD
source: Heinrich Hertz, tr: D. E.
Jones, "Electric Waves", 1893, 1962.
[2] Figure 7 from Hertz's March 1893
paper ''On Very Rapid
Oscillations'' PD
source: Heinrich Hertz, tr: D. E.
Jones, "Electric Waves", 1893, 1962.
[1887 AD]
measured and recorded.
Augustus Desire Waller (CE 1856-1922)
measures the electric potentials of the
heart muscle, finds them to coincide
with each heart muscle contraction, and
publishes the first electrocardiograph
images.
England
[1] Figure 1 from Waller 1887 paper PD
source: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/
articles/PMC1485094/pdf/jphysiol02445-00
01.pdf
[2] Image of Augustus Waller part of
same image
at: http://www.hrsonline.org/news/ep-hi
story/notable-figures/augustuswaller.cfm
UNKNOWN
source: http://www.nyteknik.se/multimedi
a/archive/00033/Jimmie-och-Augustus-_330
47a.jpg
[12/13/1888 AD]
1857-1894), German physicist, shows
that electric waves (also known as
"electric radiation" and "radio") can
be cast a shadow (have rectilinear
direction), can be polarized (using a
large frame with copper wires stretched
across), and refracted (using a 1.5
meter tall prism made of hard pitch).
Hertz focuses the electric waves using
2 metal parabolic mirrors (radio
telescope). Hertz describes the
electrically produced rays as "light of
very great wave-length".
(Is this the first radio telescope?)
Germany
[1] H. Hertz, ''Ueber Strahlen
electrischer Kraft'', Sitzungsber. d.
Berlin Akad. d. Wiss., 12/13/1888 and
Annalen der Physik Volume 272 (V36),
Issue 4, Pages 769 -
783. http://www3.interscience.wiley.com
/journal/112506747/abstract English
translation: Heinrich Hertz, tr: D. E.
Jones, ''On Electric Radiation'',
''Electric Waves'', 1893, 1962,
p172. http://books.google.com/books?id=
EJdAAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=inti
tle:electric+intitle:waves&lr=&as_drrb_i
s=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1893&as_maxm
_is=0&as_maxy_is=1893&as_brr=0&cd=1#v=on
epage&q&f=false PD
source: Heinrich Hertz, tr: D. E.
Jones, "On Electric Radiation",
"Electric Waves", 1893, 1962.
[2] H. Hertz, ''Ueber Strahlen
electrischer Kraft'', Sitzungsber. d.
Berlin Akad. d. Wiss., 12/13/1888 and
Annalen der Physik Volume 272 (V36),
Issue 4, Pages 769 -
783. http://www3.interscience.wiley.com
/journal/112506747/abstract English
translation: Heinrich Hertz, tr: D. E.
Jones, ''On Electric Radiation'',
''Electric Waves'', 1893, 1962,
p172. http://books.google.com/books?id=
EJdAAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=inti
tle:electric+intitle:waves&lr=&as_drrb_i
s=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=1893&as_maxm
_is=0&as_maxy_is=1893&as_brr=0&cd=1#v=on
epage&q&f=false PD
source: Heinrich Hertz, tr: D. E.
Jones, "On Electric Radiation",
"Electric Waves", 1893, 1962.
[02/16/1889 AD]
heart beating.
Scotland
[1] Figure 2 from: McWilliam JA
(1899). ''Electrical stimulation of the
heart in man''. Br Med J 1 (1468):
348–50.
doi:10.1136/bmj.1.1468.348. http://www.
bmj.com/content/1/1468/348 PD
source: http://www.bmj.com/content/1/146
8/348
[03/12/1889 AD]
[1] U.S. Patent 447,918 Strowger switch
''Automatic Telephone Exchange'' March
10,
1891 http://www.google.com/patents?id=P
ShCAAAAEBAJ PD
source: Figure from:
http://www.google.com/patents?id=PShCA
AAAEBAJ
[2] U.S. Patent 447,918 Strowger
switch ''Automatic Telephone Exchange''
March 10,
1891 http://www.google.com/patents?id=P
ShCAAAAEBAJ PD
source: Figure
from: http://www.google.com/patents?id=
PShCAAAAEBAJ
[06/21/1889 AD]
projector. Moving images captured and
stored on plastic film and projected
onto a screen.
[1] The first (publicly known[t]) Films
Made on Celluloid (1889-1890) PD
source: Ray Allister, pseudonym for
Muriel Forth, "Friese-Greene: Close-up
of an Inventor", Marsland Publications,
1948.
[2] Description
Williamfriesegreen.jpg English:
William Friese-Greene photographed in
c.1890 Date c1890 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2d/Williamfriesegreen.jp
g
[1892 AD]
(presumably)
[1] Picture taken from page 230 of T.
O’Connor Sloane's Liquid Air and the
Liquefaction of Gases, second edition,
published by Norman W. Henley and Co.,
New York, 1900. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/8/89/Dewar_James.jpg
[2] English: Picture of Sir James
Dewar, the scientist Source Page 98
of History of Chemistry (book) Date
1910 Author Thomas Thorpe PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2c/Dewar_James_flask.jpg
[01/31/1895 AD]
inert gases is identified.
[1] Figure 1 from Rayleigh 1893 PD
source: self-made Author: Atanamir PD
[2] William Ramsay (CE 1852-1916) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0b/Ar-TableImage.svg
[03/26/1895 AD]
England
[1] Figure 1 from Rayleigh 1893 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d2/William_Ramsay_workin
g.jpg
[2] William Ramsay PD
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/chemistry/laureates/1904/ramsay.jpg
[11/05/1895 AD]
photon beams observed.
Germany
[1] English: Photo of Wilhelm Conrad
Röntgen. Cleaned up version of
http://images.google.com/hosted/life/l?i
mgurl=6b3da250c6b5560f Source
unknown source Date 1900 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/71/Roentgen2.jpg
[2] Anna Berthe Roentgen.gif Print of
Wilhelm Röntgen's (1845-1923) first
x-ray, the hand of his wife Anna taken
on 1895-12-22, presented to Professor
Ludwig Zehnder of the Physik Institut,
University of Freiburg, on 1 January
1896. Source
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:An
na_Berthe_Roentgen.gif Date 22
December 1895 (1895-12-22) Author
Wilhelm Röntgen PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6e/Anna_Berthe_Roentgen.
gif
[03/02/1896 AD]
detected from a uranium salt.
France
[1] Photographic plate made by Henri
Becquerel showing effects of exposure
to radioactivity. Image of
Becquerel's photographic plate which
has been fogged by exposure to
radiation from a uranium salt. The
shadow of a metal Maltese Cross placed
between the plate and the uranium salt
is clearly visible. Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Becqu
erel_plate.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1e/Becquerel_plate.jpg
[2] Antoine-Henri Becquerel
(1852-1908) PD
source: http://nautilus.fis.uc.pt/wwwqui
/figuras/quimicos/img/becquerel.jpg
[05/06/1896 AD]
achieves sustained flight.
[1] English: Category:Samuel Pierpont
Langley's steam engine powered aircraft
''Aërodrome No. 5'' in flight on 1896
May 6.[1] An instantaneous photograph
by Alexander Graham Bell.[1] (3 March
1847 – 2 August 1922). Source
Page 4 from Aërial Locomotion:
With a Few Notes Date printed
1907 Author Alexander Graham
Bell PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/19/Samuel_Pierpont_Langl
ey%27s_steam_A%C3%ABrodrome_No._5_in_fli
ght.png
[2] Samuel Pierpont Langley, pioneer
aviator and 3rd Secretary of the
Smithsonian Institute. This picture is
undated but from the Smithsonian, so it
was probably taken during his tenure
there (1887-1906). It is in the public
domain as produced by the United States
Government, and also because published
before 1923. From
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Samue
l_Pierpont_Langley.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/97/Samuel_Pierpont_Langl
ey.jpg
[04/30/1897 AD]
is made of particles (the electron).
This is the first particle known to be
smaller than an atom.
England
[1] Figure 1 From Thomson, J.J.,
''Cathode-rays.'', Phil. Mag. 44,
08/07/1897,
269. http://books.google.com/books?id=Z
l0wAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editi
ons:UCALB3728216&lr=#v=onepage&q=thomson
&f=false PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=Zl0wAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edi
tions:UCALB3728216&lr=#v=onepage&q=thoms
on&f=false
[2] Figure 2 From Thomson, J.J.,
''Cathode-rays.'', Phil. Mag. 44,
08/07/1897,
269. http://books.google.com/books?id=Z
l0wAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editi
ons:UCALB3728216&lr=#v=onepage&q=thomson
&f=false PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=Zl0wAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edi
tions:UCALB3728216&lr=#v=onepage&q=thoms
on&f=false
[1897 AD]
France
[1] Figure 1 from Braun's 1897
paper. PD
source: Ferdinand Braun, "Ueber ein
Verfahren zur Demonstration und zum
Studium des zeitlichen Verlaufes
variabler Ströme", Annalen der Physik
und Chemie, vol. lx., 1897, p.
552-559. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/121
48/bpt6k15301j.image.f558.langFR {Braun
_Ferdinand_oscilloscope_1897.pdf} Engli
sh translation: Ferdinand Braun, "A
Method of Demonstrating and Studying
the Time-relations of Variable
Currents.", Minutes of proceedings of
the Institution of Civil Engineers,
Volume 129, 1897,
p464. http://books.google.com/books?id=
rXgMAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA464&lpg=PA464&dq=A+Met
hod+of+Demonstrating+and+Studying+the+Ti
me-relations+of+Variable+Currents.+Ferdi
nand+Braun.&source=bl&ots=CY1GqwE3Ku&sig
=7-zDHHHs-PeoCHn_veDdZXebryM&hl=en&ei=O0
bOSoKvC5L0sgPulqm2Dg&sa=X&oi=book_result
&ct=result&resnum=1#v=onepage&q=A%20Meth
od%20of%20Demonstrating%20and%20Studying
%20the%20Time-relations%20of%20Variable%
20Currents.%20Ferdinand%20Braun.&f=false
PD
[2] Ferdinand Braun (1850-1918), Nobel
laureate 1909. (in
Physics) http://www.cathodique.net/FB
raun.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/55/Ferdinand_Braun.jpg
[1897 AD]
exhibit the phenomena of interference,
reflection, refraction and double
refraction, diffraction, polarization
and absorption. However, with the view
that light is a particle, all these
phenomena can all be reduced to
reflection and absorption. These
experiments using 26mm interval light
particles refracted to the focus of a
lens are strong evidence that light
beams have no amplitude but move in a
straight line.
Bologna) Bologna, Italy
[1] Figure from German translation of
Righi's 1897 work PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=H5cIAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Aug
usto+Righi&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=&f=false
[2] [t what is the black rectangle for
or covering?] Italiano: Fotografia di
Augusto Righi scattata oltre 70 anni
fa, quindi di pubblico dominio. (Fonte:
Sito del Museo di Fisica di
Bologna) Date 2007-11-30
(original upload date) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/ef/Augusto_Righi.jpg
[05/10/1898 AD]
(presumably)
[1] Picture taken from page 230 of T.
O’Connor Sloane's Liquid Air and the
Liquefaction of Gases, second edition,
published by Norman W. Henley and Co.,
New York, 1900. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/8/89/Dewar_James.jpg
[2] English: Picture of Sir James
Dewar, the scientist Source Page 98
of History of Chemistry (book) Date
1910 Author Thomas Thorpe PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2c/Dewar_James_flask.jpg
[06/03/1898 AD]
and isolated.
England
[1] Krypton element 36 from Periodic
Table GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kry
pton
[2] Figure 1 from Rayleigh 1893 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d2/William_Ramsay_workin
g.jpg
[06/13/1898 AD]
isolated.
England
[1] Neon, element 10 on the Periodic
Table GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neo
n
[2] Figure 1 from Rayleigh 1893 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d2/William_Ramsay_workin
g.jpg
[07/18/1898 AD]
Paris, France
[1] Polonium foil [t verify] UNKNOWN
source: http://periodictable.com/Samples
/084.8/s12s.JPG
[2] Description
Mariecurie.jpg Portrait of Marie
Skłodowska-Curie (November 7, 1867 –
July 4, 1934), sometime prior to 1907.
Curie and her husband Pierre shared a
Nobel Prize in Physics in 1903. Working
together, she and her husband isolated
Polonium. Pierre died in 1907, but
Marie continued her work, namely with
Radium, and received a Nobel Prize in
Chemistry in 1911. Her death is mainly
attributed to excess exposure to
radiation. Date ca. 1898 Source
http://www.mlahanas.de/Physics/Bios
/MarieCurie.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d9/Mariecurie.jpg
[07/18/1898 AD]
Paris, France
[1] Pierre and Marie Curie discovered
radioactivity in the elements polonium
and radium. Working in a stable, Marie
purified 0.1 gram of radium from
several tons of ore. Image: National
Library of Medicine PD
source: http://whyfiles.org/020radiation
/images/curies_experiment.jpg
[2] Description
Mariecurie.jpg Portrait of Marie
Skłodowska-Curie (November 7, 1867 –
July 4, 1934), sometime prior to 1907.
Curie and her husband Pierre shared a
Nobel Prize in Physics in 1903. Working
together, she and her husband isolated
Polonium. Pierre died in 1907, but
Marie continued her work, namely with
Radium, and received a Nobel Prize in
Chemistry in 1911. Her death is mainly
attributed to excess exposure to
radiation. Date ca. 1898 Source
http://www.mlahanas.de/Physics/Bios
/MarieCurie.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d9/Mariecurie.jpg
[09/08/1898 AD]
and isolated.
England
[1] Xenon on the Periodic table GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xen
on
[2] Figure 1 from Rayleigh 1893 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d2/William_Ramsay_workin
g.jpg
[1898 AD]
data. Sound recorded and played back
magnetically.
Copenhagen, Denmark
[1] Description Telegrafon
8154.jpg Magyar: Valdemar Poulsen
mágneses hangrögzítő készüléke
1898-ból. A Brede Værk ipari
múzeumban látható a dániai
Lingbyben. Saját felvétel. Dansk:
Valdemar Poulsen opfandt i i 1898 af en
magnetisk optageenhed der kaldes en
Telegrafon English: Magnetic wire
recorder, invented by Valdemar Poulsen,
1898. It is exhibited at Brede works
Industrial Museum, Lingby,
Danmark. Date 25 October
2009(2009-10-25) (original upload
date) Source Transferred from
hu.wikipedia; transferred to Commons by
User:Nico-dk using
CommonsHelper. Author Original
uploader was Bitman at
hu.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) CC-BY-SA-2.5; Released under
the GNU Free Documentation
License. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f9/Telegrafon_8154.jpg
[2] 1 Valdemar Poulsen (1869-1942),
der Erfinder der magnetischen
Schallaufzeichnung UNKNOWN
source: http://www.theimann.com/Analog/H
istory/100_Jahre/Bild1.jpg
[1899 AD]
(presumably)
[1] Figures from Chemical News article
by James Dewar ''Solid Hydrogen'' PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=958EAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA1-PT49&dq=chemical+ne
ws+dewar+solidification+date:1899-1899&e
i=ZcdnSaXOJYrUkwSazf0m#PRA1-PT129,M1
[2] Picture taken from page 230 of T.
O’Connor Sloane's Liquid Air and the
Liquefaction of Gases, second edition,
published by Norman W. Henley and Co.,
New York, 1900. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/8/89/Dewar_James.jpg
[1899 AD]
[1] Presumably actinium, a soft,
silvery-white metal which glows in the
dark. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.rsc.org/chemsoc/visua
lelements/pages/data/graphic/ac_data.jpg
[2] Actinium on periodic table GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Act
inium
[02/14/1901 AD]
[1] William Herbert Rollins PD
source: http://harvardmedicine.hms.harva
rd.edu/bulletin/spring2008/images/rollin
s.2.jpg
[1901 AD]
[1] europium CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/ab/EU5P17G-crop.jpg
[2] Eugène Anatole DEMARCAY (1852 -
1904) PD
source: http://histoirechimie.free.fr/Li
en/Demarcay.jpg
[1902 AD]
(copying) of a photograph to another
photograph.
[1] Essai d'une transmission de
téléphotographie (1904) PD/Corel [t
Korn's photocopying telegraph
transmitter and receiver] PD/Corel
source: http://histv.free.fr/images/korn
8.jpg
[2] Dr. Arthur Korn 1870 -
1945 PD/Corel
source: http://www.hffax.de/assets/image
s/a_Korn.gif
[03/23/1903 AD]
brothers, Wilbur Wright (CE 1867-1912)
and Orville Wright (CE 1871-1948) build
and fly the first successful powered,
sustained, and controlled airplane.
USA
[1] Description First
flight2.jpg English: First successful
flight of the Wright Flyer, by the
Wright brothers. The machine traveled
120 ft (36.6 m) in 12 seconds at 10:35
a.m. at Kitty Hawk, North Carolina.
Orville Wright was at the controls of
the machine, lying prone on the lower
wing with his hips in the cradle which
operated the wing-warping mechanism.
Wilbur Wright ran alongside to balance
the machine, and just released his hold
on the forward upright of the right
wing in the photo. The starting rail,
the wing-rest, a coil box, and other
items needed for flight preparation are
visible behind the machine. This was
considered ''the first sustained and
controlled heavier-than-air, powered
flight'' by the Fédération
Aéronautique
Internationale. Français : L’un des
premier vols habités de l’histoire
dans un aéronef plus lourd que l’air
(36.6 mètres en 12 secondes), par les
frères Wright le 17 décembre 1903 à
10h35 sur la plage de Kitty Hawk en
Caroline du Nord. Orville est aux
commandes, allongé sur le ventre sur
l’aile basse et les hanches dans la
nacelle qui servait à contrôler le
mouvement des ailes ; Wilbur court le
long de l’appareil et vient de lacher
l’aile droite. Le rail de lancement,
des étais et d’autres équipements
nécessaires pour la préparation du
vol sont visibles. 日本語:
1903年12月17日、ライト兄弟が
類初の動力飛行機での有人飛
行に成功した時の写真。 Date
17 December 1903 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/86/First_flight2.jpg
[2] * Description: Wilbur
Wright Background notes: Wright
brothers English: Early Wright
brother’s airplanes explored basic
principles of flight. The Wright
brothers are widely credited with
engineering the first aircraft capable
of sustained powered
flight. Commons-emblem-notice.svg
Wright brothers Wikipedia:
Asturianu Bosanski Català
Čeština Dansk Deutsch English
Esperanto Español Euskara Suomi
Français עברית Magyar Bahasa
Indonesia Italiano 日本語
한국어 Latina Lietuvių
Nederlands Norsk (Bokmål) Polski
Português Русский Slovenčina
Slovenščina Српски / Srpski
Svenska ไทย Türkçe Tiếng
Việt 中文 Other links: US
inventors *** Smithsonian Stories of
the Wright flights *** National Park
Service, Wright Brothers' Memorial ***
PBS Nova: The Wright Brothers' Flying
Machines * Source:
http://lcweb2.loc.gov/pp/wrihtml/wribac.
html * Photographer: unknwon PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/77/Wilbur_Wright.jpg
[1904 AD]
determine location of distant objects.
[1] Figure 1: Hülsmeyer’s German
165,546 (1904) telemobileoscope PD
source: http://www.q-track.com/Files/fil
es/Schantz-RF%20since%20WWII.pdf
[2] Christian Huelsmeyer UNKNOWN
source: http://www.radarworld.org/images
/scans/Hulsmeyer.jpg
[12/21/1906 AD]
amplifier.
York City, New York, USA
[1] From De Forest 1907 Patent: Lee De
Forest, ''Space Telegraphy'', Patent
number: 879532, Filing date: Jan 29,
1907, Issue date: Feb 18,
1908 http://www.google.com/patents?id=6
i1vAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&sou
rce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=f
alse PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=6i1vAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f
=false
[2] Description Lee De
Forest.jpg en:Lee De Forest,
published in the February 1904 issue of
The Electrical Age. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/65/Lee_De_Forest.jpg
[11/13/1907 AD]
free flight while carrying a passenger.
[1] Paul Cornu's helicopter was the
first to achieve free flight while
carrying a passenger (1907). Credits
-National Air and Space
Museum, Smithsonian Institution (SI
Neg. No. 93-640) The French bicycle
maker and engineer Paul Cornu, born in
1881 in Lisieux, France, was the first
person to design and build a helicopter
that achieved free flight while
carrying a passenger. His twin-rotor
craft flew for about 20 seconds on
November 13, 1907, rising about one
foot (0.3 meter) off the ground. A
24-horsepower (18-kilowatt) engine
powered the helicopter, which had
counter-rotating rotors. The helicopter
had no effective means of control and
was abandoned after a few
flights. Cornu died in 1944. PD
source: http://www.centennialofflight.go
v/essay/Dictionary/Cornu/DI18G1.jpg
[2] Paul Cornu in his first helicopter
in 1907. Note that he is sitting
between the two rotors, which rotated
in opposite directions to cancel
torque. This helicopter was the first
flying machine to have risen from the
ground using rotor blades instead of
wings. Credits - © 2001 Smithsonian
Institution, National Air and Space
Museum, Videodisc. 2B 5847 PD
source: http://www.centennialofflight.go
v/essay/Rotary/early_20th_century/HE2G13
.jpg
[1907 AD]
[1] Lutetium Metal COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.americanelements.com/
ingot.jpg
[2] Georges Urbain UNKNOWN
source: http://er.uqam.ca/nobel/c3410/im
age041.png
[06/06/1908 AD]
(photographic) image transmitted and
received using an invisible frequency
of light particles (wireless radio).
[1] From top to bottom, left to
right Top: Plan View of Receiver
Showing Negative Received. Middle:
Plan View of Transmitter Showing
Traveling Carriage Carrying
Picture. Bottom Left: The Transmitting
Apparatus Bottom Middle: Photograph of
Edward VII. Transmitted by Wireless
Telegraphy. Bottom Right: The Receiver
Showing Relay to Which Recording Needle
is Connected. PD/Corel
source: KNUDSEN'S PROCESS OF
TRANSMITTING PICTURES BY WIRELESS
TELEGRAPHY. BY THE ENGLISH
CORREESPONDENT OF THE SCIENTIFIC
AMERICAN.. Scientific American
(1845-1908). New York: Jun 6, 1908.
Vol. Vol. XCVIII., Iss. No. 23.; p. 412
(1 page)
[06/27/1908 AD]
Netherlands
[1] Plate 2 from Kamerlingh Onnes 1908
paper PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=bYfNAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edi
tions:0TAagV5ZkvksJU62wD#v=onepage&q=hel
ium&f=false
[2] * Author: anonymous or
pseudonymous, per EU Copyright
Directive (1993), Article 1, §§1-4
* This image was published not later
than 1913 in conjunction with the Nobel
Prize in Physics. * Sources:
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1913/onnes-bio.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/94/Kamerlingh_portret.jp
g
[09/??/1909 AD]
neuron reading and writing devices are
microscopic in size. French physicist
Jean Perrin uses the word "dust" in the
same paragraph that the word "thought"
is used three times.
Paris, France
[1] Jean Baptiste Perrin UNKNOWN
source: http://www.scientific-web.com/en
/Physics/Biographies/images/Jean_Baptist
e_Perrin.jpg
[2] Description Jean Baptiste
Perrin.jpg * Author: anonymous
or pseudonymous, per EU Copyright
Directive (1993), Article 1, §§1-4
* This image was published not later
than 1925 in conjunction with the Nobel
Prize in Physics. If anyone has
information that the author's name was
publicly disclosed in connection with
this photograph, please make a note on
this page and indicate where the
author's name was seen to be publicly
disclosed in connection with this
image. * A search of the US
Copyright renewals throughout the 1950s
shows no record of copyright renewal,
as would be required to extend
copyright protection beyond the year
1953. If anyone has information that
would document a copyright renewal in
the U.S., please cite it on this page
by clicking on ''Edit this page''.
* Source:
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1926/perrin-bio.html Dat
e 1926(1926) Source
Originally from en.wikipedia;
description page is/was
here. http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prize
s/physics/laureates/1926/perrin-bio.html
PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5f/Jean_Baptiste_Perrin.
jpg
[1909 AD]
clearly this invention must date back
to at least the 1800s and probably long
before, but like neuron reading and
writing was kept from the public for a
shockingly long time.)
(verify)
[1] St. John's Newfoundland kite which
received the famous signal 1901 PD
source: B. L. Jacot de Boinod and D. M.
B. Collier, "Marconi: Master of Space"
(1935)
[2] Marconi Station at Poldhu,
Cornwall, from which first
transatlantic signals were transmitted.
Contrasted with top picture, the
Bridgewater Beam transmitting
station. PD
source: B. L. Jacot de Boinod and D. M.
B. Collier, "Marconi: Master of Space"
(1935)
[06/??/1911 AD]
description of a machine that records
the sounds of thought from a brain, and
of a machine that writes sounds back to
the brain which are heard in thought.
[1] image of ''Menograph'' tape of
thought audio from Hugo Gernsback June
1911 story ''Ralph 124c 41 +''. PD
source: Hugo Gernsback, "Ralph 124C 41
+", "Modern Electrics", Modern
Electrics Publication, New York, Vol.
4, No. 3, June 1911. Taken from "Modern
Electrics", Volume 3-4, Jan-Dec 1911,
p164-165.
[2] image of Hugo Gernsback June 1911
story ''Ralph 124c 41 +''. PD
source: Hugo Gernsback, "Ralph 124C 41
+", "Modern Electrics", Modern
Electrics Publication, New York, Vol.
4, No. 3, June 1911. Taken from "Modern
Electrics", Volume 3-4, Jan-Dec 1911,
p167.
[1911 AD]
different atomic mass, but the same
position on the periodic table).
Scotland
[1] Figure from: Frederick Soddy,
''The chemistry of mesothorium'', J.
Chem. Soc., Trans., 1911, 99,
72-83. http://pubs.rsc.org/en/Content/A
rticleLanding/1911/CT/ct9119900072
and http://pubs.rsc.org/en/Content/Arti
clePDF/1911/CT/CT9119900072?page=Search
{Soddy_Frederick_mesothorium_1911.pdf}
PD
source: Soddy_Frederick_mesothorium_1911
[2] Frederick Soddy UNKNOWN
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1921/soddy
_postcard.jpg
[05/04/1912 AD]
reveals crystal atomic structure.
Germany
[1] From W. Friedrich, P. Knipping,
M. Laue, ''Interferenzerscheinungen bei
Röntgenstrahlen'', Annalen der Physik,
Volume 346, Issue 10, pages 971–988,
1913. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/do
i/10.1002/andp.19133461004/abstract {La
ue_Max_19130315.pdf} PD
source: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/d
oi/10.1002/andp.19133461004/pdf
[2] X-ray photograph of Zinc
blende PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0e/Max_von_Laue.jpg
[11/11/1912 AD]
reflection. The dispersion of light by
a grating or prism into a spectrum of
increasing frequencies is explained as
particles of the same spacing as the
grating groove at some angle of
incidence, all reflecting in the same
direction.
University) Cambridge, England
[1] Figure 2 from: Bragg, W.L. The
Diffraction of Short Electromagnetic
Waves by a Crystal. Proceedings of the
Cambridge Philosophical Society, 1913:
17, pp.
43-57. {Bragg_William_Lawrence_19121111
.pdf} PD
source: Bragg_William_Lawrence_19121111.
[2] Figures 3 and 4 from: Bragg, W.L.
The Diffraction of Short
Electromagnetic Waves by a Crystal.
Proceedings of the Cambridge
Philosophical Society, 1913: 17, pp.
43-57. {Bragg_William_Lawrence_19121111
.pdf} PD
source: Bragg_William_Lawrence_19121111.
[10/20/1913 AD]
to have very high velocity relative to
us.
Flagstaff, Arizona, USA
[1] Vesto Melvin Slipher (11/11/1875 -
08/11/1969) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.phys-astro.sonoma.edu
/BruceMedalists/Slipher/slipher.jpg
[07/28/1914 AD]
with images on plastic film.
[1] Eric Tigerstedts ljudfilmspatent
nummer 309.536 från 28/7 1914 PD
source: http://www.filmsoundsweden.se/vo
xbilder/filmhist/tigerstedt.jpg
[2] Sound in Movies (Eric
Tigerstedt) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/fi/thumb/f/f3/Eric_Tigerstedt_1915
.jpg/250px-Eric_Tigerstedt_1915.jpg
[1914 AD]
other galaxies.
England
[1] Description Arthur Stanley
Eddington.jpg English: English
astrophysicist Sir Arthur Stanley
Eddington (1882–1944) Date
Unrecorded Source
US-LibraryOfCongress-BookLogo.svg
This image is available from the
United States Library of Congress's
Prints and Photographs division under
the digital ID ggbain.38064. This tag
does not indicate the copyright status
of the attached work. A normal
copyright tag is still required. See
Commons:Licensing for more
information. العربية
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/24/Arthur_Stanley_Edding
ton.jpg
[1917 AD]
piezoelectricity and used to determine
location of objects (sonar).
(presumably)
[1] Description Paul
Langevin.jpg Paul Langevin Date
2007-02-13 (original upload
date) Unknown - before 1946 (original
picture) Source Originally from
en.wikipedia; description page is/was
here. Original source:
http://www.nndb.com/people/085/000099785
/paul-langevin-1-sized.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/65/Paul_Langevin.jpg
[04/??/1918 AD]
the outer part of our galaxy.
Wilson, California, USA
[1] Figure 1 from: Shapley, ''Remarks
on the Arrangement of the Sidereal
Universe'', Astrophysical Journal, 49
(1919), 311–336.
http://books.google.com/books?id=wX4OA
AAAIAAJ&pg=PA311&lpg=PA311&dq=Remarks+on
+the+Arrangement+of+the+Sidereal+Univers
e&source=bl&ots=Akurl3Ntg9&sig=CIY6NgmTy
xBZqKK3RXWo3MWIr2U&hl=en&ei=hmMcTaKJK5So
sAPG2ZDSAg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result
&resnum=2&ved=0CBoQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=Re
marks%20on%20the%20Arrangement%20of%20th
e%20Sidereal%20Universe&f=false PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=wX4OAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA311&lpg=PA311&dq=Rema
rks+on+the+Arrangement+of+the+Sidereal+U
niverse&source=bl&ots=Akurl3Ntg9&sig=CIY
6NgmTyxBZqKK3RXWo3MWIr2U&hl=en&ei=hmMcTa
KJK5SosAPG2ZDSAg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=
result&resnum=2&ved=0CBoQ6AEwAQ#v=onepag
e&q=Remarks%20on%20the%20Arrangement%20o
f%20the%20Sidereal%20Universe&f=false
[2] * Harlow Shapley's observations
placed the Sun about 25,000 light years
from the center of our home Galaxy.
* Photo credit: National
Academies UNKNOWN
source: http://www.cosmotography.com/ima
ges/dark_matter_gallery/HarlowShapley.jp
g
[06/21/1918 AD]
London, UK
[1] Image from: William Henry Eccles
and Frank Wilfred Jordan,
''Improvements in ionic relays''
British patent number: GB 148582
(filed: 21 June 1918; published: 5
August 1920).
http://worldwide.espacenet.com/publica
tionDetails/originalDocument?CC=GB&NR=14
8582&KC=&FT=E {Eccles_William_Henry_ele
ctronic_memory_GB148582A_19180621.pdf}
PD
source: http://worldwide.espacenet.com/p
ublicationDetails/originalDocument?CC=GB
&NR=148582&KC=&FT=E
[2] A simple yet powerful animation of
how an R-S flip-flop works. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f4/R-S.gif
[04/??/1919 AD]
change atoms of nitrogen into atoms of
oxygen (transmutation) by colliding
accelerated alpha particles with
nitrogen gas.
England
[1] Figure 1 from Ernest Rutherford,
''Collision of α Particles with Light
Atoms'', Phil. Mag. June 1919, s6, 37,
pp581-87. PD
source: http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/r
uth.gif
[2] Description Ernest
Rutherford2.jpg English: Cropped
Image:Ernest_Rutherford.jpg Date
2007-01-26 (original upload
date) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia Author Original
uploader was Sadi Carnot at
en.wikipedia GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/57/Ernest_Rutherford2.jp
g
[1920 AD]
nanometer in size. "Nanophone"
transmitter developed but kept secret.
This device uses light particles to
transmit sounds to distant receivers.
[1920 AD]
nanometer in size. "Nanocamera"
developed but kept secret. This device
uses light particle to transmit images
to distant receivers.
[1920 AD]
nanometer in size. "Nano-thought-cam"
("nano-thought-reader",
"Nano-neuron-reader") transmitter
developed but kept secret. This device
uses light particles to transmit
thought-images and thought-sounds to
distant receivers. It may be that
sound, image and neuron reading and
writing may all be consolodated into a
single device. These device may have
tiny light particle powered engines,
and so may float around into a room,
and be precisely positioned using tiny
nanometer size engines.
[1920 AD]
writing devices developed but kept
secret. This device uses x particles
(xray) to remotely write to neurons
(make neurons fire) using very precise
directional movement.
[1920 AD]
size.
[01/02/1923 AD]
Denmark
[1] Properties and image of
Hafnium GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haf
nium
[2] This is a file from the Wikimedia
Commons Description George de
Hevesy.jpg English: Source:
http://www.oeaw.ac.at/smi/bilder/photo/H
evesy.JPG Public domain: photographer
died >70yrs ago. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b4/George_de_Hevesy.jpg
[06/14/1923 AD]
(silhouette) images transmitted and
received using photons (wireless
radio).
[1] Motion Pictures by Ether Waves -
August 1925 ''Popular Radio''
Article (Courtesy John
Hauser) PD/Corel
source: http://www.tvhistory.tv/1925-Aug
-Popular-Radio-P107a.JPG
[2] From ''Animated Pictures'' By
Charles Francis Jenkins Charles
Francis Jenkins PD/Corel
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=uJYFAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA138&dq=C+Francis+Jenk
ins&as_brr=1&ei=tjLdSLjvOJfStQPK2rGRCg#P
PP6,M1
[12/29/1923 AD]
display.
Pittsberg, PA, USA) Haddenfield, New
Jersey, USA
[1] Drawing from Zworykin's 1923 patent
application Television
System. Vladimir K. Zworykin's patent
1923 Source
http://www.google.com/patents/about
?id=bdYBAAAAEBAJ Date
1923 Author Vladimir K.
Zworykin Permission (Reusing this
file) See below. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/8/84/Zworykin_patent_%281923%29
.jpg
[2] Screenshot of Vladimir K. Zworykin
from the documentary film the Story of
Television Date 1956 and
later Source Screenshot from the
Story of Television from the Prelinger
Archives in the Internet
Archive Author Produced by Ganz
(William J.) Co. and Radio Corporation
of America (RCA) Film is in the Public
Domain PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/30/Zworykin_docgrab.jpg
[01/01/1925 AD]
galaxies containing stars and to be
very far away.
California, USA
[1] Hubble's Famous M31 VAR!
plate On the night of October 5-6,
1923, Carnegie astronomer Edwin P.
Hubble took a plate of the Andromeda
Galaxy (Messier 31) with the Hooker
100-inch telescope of the Mount Wilson
Observatory. This plate, with
identification number H335H (''Hooker
plate 335 by Hubble''), is famous for
having led to his discovery of the
first Cepheid variable star in M31,
which established beyond any doubt that
M31 was a separate galaxy from our
own. Shown here are three images of
Plate H335H as well as three images of
a similar plate, H331H, which Hubble
took the night before. The letters N
on Plate H335H mark Novae, stars marked
by Hubble as new when compared with
earlier plates. The first Cepheid
variable discovered has its letter N
crossed out and is marked ''VAR!'',
showing that Hubble originally thought
it was a nova, but eventually
discovered that it varied in brightness
like a Cepheid. The first image of
H335H shows the glass side of the
photographic plate, on which Hubble
marked novae and, eventually, the first
Cepheid in ink. The next two images
show the emulsion side of the plate at
two contrasts, with Hubble's writing of
plate information at the top (Plate ID,
M31, 45 min exposure on plate of type
Seed 30, seeing of 3+ on Mt Wilson
scale, date, and hour angle of 2 hr 8
min East at the end of the
exposure). The first image of H335H
shows the glass side of the
photographic plate, on which Hubble
marked novae and, eventually, the first
Cepheid in ink. The next two images
show the emulsion side of the plate at
two contrasts, with Hubble's writing of
plate information at the top (Plate ID,
M31, 45 min exposure on plate of type
Seed 30, seeing of 3+ on Mt Wilson
scale, date, and hour angle of 2 hr 8
min East at the end of the
exposure). COPYRIGHT: The above
images are all copyright protected.
Downloads for inspection, scientific
and historical work are free. However,
any reproduction in commercial products
(including books) must be licensed by
Carnegie Observatories and will be
assessed a permission fee. For
permission to use any of these images
in a commercial product, please contact
John Grula NONCOMMERICAL USE
source: http://obs.carnegiescience.edu/s
ites/obs.carnegiescience.edu/files/pictu
res/H335H_emuls_0681_38_wm.jpg
[2] Edwin Hubble (with pipe)
Photograph of famous deceased scientist
Edwin Hubble for use in the appropriate
encyclopedia article. Original
Source: Edwin Hubble Biography at
Western Washington University
Planetarium:
http://www.wwu.edu/depts/skywise/hubble.
html UNKNOWN
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/6/64/Hubble.jpg
[07/13/1925 AD]
camera.
[1] Figure from Zworykin 1925
patent PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=mZ9KAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f
=false
[2] Screenshot of Vladimir K. Zworykin
from the documentary film the Story of
Television Date 1956 and
later Source Screenshot from the
Story of Television from the Prelinger
Archives in the Internet
Archive Author Produced by Ganz
(William J.) Co. and Radio Corporation
of America (RCA) Film is in the Public
Domain PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/30/Zworykin_docgrab.jpg
[10/22/1925 AD]
and amplifier (transistor). First
public millimeter size electric switch.
USA
[1] Figure 1 from: Julius Lilienfeld,
Patent number: 1745175, ''METHOD AND
APPARATUS FOR CONTROLLING ELECTRIC
CURRENTS'', US Filing date: Oct 8,
1926, Canada filing date: October 22,
1925, Issue date: Jan 28,
1930. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
uBFMAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=
false PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=uBFMAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f
=false
[2] Source: scanned passport
photo Rationale: Photographer died
>70yrs ago. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/5/59/Julius_Edgar_Lilienfeld_%2
81881-1963%29.jpg
[06/26/1926 AD]
Germany
[1] Description Rhenium single crystal
bar and 1cm3 cube.jpg Deutsch: Ein
hochreiner (99,999 % = 5N)
Rhenium-Einkristall, hergestellt nach
dem Zonenschmelzverfahren, ein
elektronenstrahlgeschmolzener (99,995 %
= 4N5) Rheniumbarren, sowie für den
Größenvergleich ein reiner (99,99 % =
4N) 1 cm3 Rhenium-Würfel. English: A
high purity (99.999 %) rhenium single
crystal made by the floating zone
process, an ebeam remelted (99.995 %)
rhenium bar and as well as a high
purity (99.99 % = 4N) 1 cm3 rhenium
cube for comparison. Date 25
September 2010(2010-09-25) Source
Own work Author Alchemist-hp
(talk)
(www.pse-mendelejew.de) Permission CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/71/Rhenium_single_crysta
l_bar_and_1cm3_cube.jpg
[2] Walter Noddack 1893 -
1960 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.ptb.de/cms/uploads/RT
EmagicC_82fb10ee7d.png.png
[02/??/1930 AD]
one of many galaxies.
Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
[1] * Harlow Shapley's observations
placed the Sun about 25,000 light years
from the center of our home Galaxy.
* Photo credit: National
Academies UNKNOWN
source: http://www.cosmotography.com/ima
ges/dark_matter_gallery/HarlowShapley.jp
g
[09/10/1931 AD]
University) Berlin, Germany
[1] Figure 2 from: M. Knoll und E.
Ruska, ''Beitrag zur geometrischen
Elektronenoptik.'', Ann. Physik 12
(1932) 607-661, eingegangen am
10.9.1931. http://ernstruska.digilibrar
y.de/bibliographie/q004/q004.html {Rusk
a_Ernst_q004_19310910.pdf} UNKNOWN
source: http://ernstruska.digilibrary.de
/bibliographie/q004/q004.html
[2] Ernst Ruska, 1939 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.siemens.com/history/p
ool/perseunlichkeiten/wissenschaftler/ru
ska_1939.jpg
[02/17/1932 AD]
Cambridge, England
[1] Figure 1 from: J. Chadwick, ''The
Existence of a Neutron'', Proceedings
of the Royal Society of London. Series
A, Containing Papers of a Mathematical
and Physical Character, Vol. 136, No.
830 (Jun. 1, 1932), pp.
692-708. http://www.jstor.org/stable/95
816 {Chadwick_James_19320510.pdf}
{full report: 05/10/1932} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/pdfp
lus/95816.pdf?acceptTC=true
[2] Description
Chadwick.jpg en:James
Chadwick Date ~1935 (original
photograph), 2007-08-11 (original
upload date) Source Transfered
from en.wikipedia. Original source:
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1935/chadwick-bio.html COP
YRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c2/Chadwick.jpg
[03/17/1934 AD]
from two hydrogen atoms.
England
[1] Figures 4, 5 and 6 from Oliphant,
Harteck, Rutherford, ''Transmutation
Effects observed with Heavy Hydrogen'',
Proceedings of the Royal Society, A,
144, 1934, pp692-703. COPYRIGHTED
source: Oliphant, Harteck, Rutherford,
"Transmutation Effects observed with
Heavy Hydrogen", Proceedings of the
Royal Society, A, 144, 1934, pp692-703.
[2] Description Ernest
Rutherford2.jpg English: Cropped
Image:Ernest_Rutherford.jpg Date
2007-01-26 (original upload
date) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia Author Original
uploader was Sadi Carnot at
en.wikipedia GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/57/Ernest_Rutherford2.jp
g
[05/??/1934 AD]
1901-1954), Italian-US physicist
bombards uranium with neutrons
producing what will be shown to be
atomic fission, and probably creating
Neptunium and Plutnium.
[1] Enrico Fermi Nobel
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://publishing.cdlib.org/ucpr
essebooks/data/13030/rb/ft700007rb/figur
es/ft700007rb_00009.jpg
[2] Enrico Fermi from Argonne
National Laboratory PD
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/physics/laureates/1938/fermi.jpg
[06/28/1934 AD]
chain reaction understood.
England
[1] Figure 2 from: L. Szilárd,
''Improvements in or relating to the
transmutation of chemical elements,''
British patent number: GB630726 (filed:
28 June 1934; published: 30 March
1936).http://v3.espacenet.com/publicatio
nDetails/originalDocument;jsessionid=8B2
86F84EEDA7D654C9A04127F25CBA9.espacenet_
levelx_prod_5?CC=GB&NR=630726A&KC=A&FT=D
&date=19360330&DB=&locale= {Szilard_Leo
_19340628.pdf} PD
source: http://v3.espacenet.com/publicat
ionDetails/originalDocument;jsessionid=8
B286F84EEDA7D654C9A04127F25CBA9.espacene
t_levelx_prod_5?CC=GB&NR=630726A&KC=A&FT
=D&date=19360330&DB=&locale=
[2] Leo Szilard (1898 - 1964)
UNKNOWN
source: http://www.atomicarchive.com/Ima
ges/bio/B56.jpg
[01/??/1936 AD]
calcium absorption lines.
California, USA
[1] The infamous Plate III of 1936
from: Humason, M. L., ''The Apparent
Radial Velocities of 100 Extra-Galactic
Nebulae'', Astrophysical Journal, vol.
83, p.10, Jan
1936. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.ed
u//full/1936ApJ....83...10H/0000011.000.
html {Humason_193510xx.pdf} COPYRIGHTE
D
source: {Humason_193510xx.pdf}
[2] The infamous Plate III of 1936
from: Humason, M. L., ''The Apparent
Radial Velocities of 100 Extra-Galactic
Nebulae'', Astrophysical Journal, vol.
83, p.10, Jan
1936. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.ed
u//full/1936ApJ....83...10H/0000011.000.
html {Humason_193510xx.pdf} COPYRIGHTE
D
source: {Humason_193510xx.pdf}
[05/14/1937 AD]
identified from neutron uranium
collision.
Berlin-Dahlem) Berlin, Germany
[1] Lise Meitner UNKNOWN
source: http://www3.findagrave.com/photo
s/2007/278/15166236_119171400954.jpg
[2] Otto Hahn UNKNOWN
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/chemistry/laureates/1944/hahn.jpg
[05/22/1937 AD]
confirmed to be about 0.1 nm in size.
Germany
[1] Figures 2-4 from: ''Fig 2.
Tungsten cathode (filament) [011] -
Direction in the middle. Fig 3.
Tungsten cathode [211] - Direction,
almost in the middle. Fig 4. Sphere
model with the lattice directions of a
cube-based emission tungsten cathode,
field of view as Fig 3.'' [2] Erwin W.
Müller, ''Elektronenmikroskopische
Beobachtungen von Feldkathoden'',
Zeitschrift für Physik A Hadrons and
Nuclei, Volume 106, Numbers 9-10,
541-550, DOI:
10.1007/BF01339895 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/h425u71vqh66w886/ {Mull
er_Erwin_W_19370522.pdf}
English: ''Electron microscopic
observations of field cathode''
source: http://www.springerlink.com/cont
ent/h425u71vqh66w886/
[2] COPYRIGHTED
source: http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/opti
cs/timeline/people/antiqueimages/mueller
.jpg
[06/30/1937 AD]
[1] Description
Tc,43.jpg Technetium Date
Uploaded 2005-06-01 on af: Source
Lapp, Ralph E. and the Editors of
Life (1965). Matter: Life Science
Library. New York: TIME
Incorporated. Author Attributed
as a U.S. government image in scanning
source PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/40/Tc%2C43.jpg
[2] This is a file from the Wikimedia
Commons Los Alamos wartime badge
photo: Emilio Segrè Source: Los
Alamos National Laboratory,
http://www.lanl.gov/history/wartime/staf
f.shtml PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/71/Emilio_Segre_ID_badge
.png
[06/22/1938 AD]
(150nm).
Gesellschaft/Berlin Medical Society)
Berlin, Germany
[1] (ubermikroskop) Ultramicroscope
image of the virus of ectromelia in the
point mouse. Infectious material from
the lymph of an infected paw. magnified
20,000x. Figure 1 from: B. v.
Borries, E. Ruska und H. Ruska,
''Bakterien und Virus in
übermikroskopischer
Aufnahme.'', Klin. Wochenschrift 17
(1938)
921-925. http://ernstruska.digilibrary.
de/bibliographie/q021/q021.html {Ruska_
Ernst_19380622.pdf} UNKNOWN
source: http://ernstruska.digilibrary.de
/bibliographie/q021/q021.html
[2] Ernst Ruska, 1939 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.siemens.com/history/p
ool/perseunlichkeiten/wissenschaftler/ru
ska_1939.jpg
[01/16/1939 AD]
(Meitner), (University of Copenhagen),
Copenhagen, Denmark (Frisch)
[1] Otto Frisch Los Alamos wartime
badge photo: Otto R. Frisch Source:
Los Alamos National Laboratory,
http://www.lanl.gov/history/wartime/staf
f.shtml PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/20/Otto_Frisch_ID_badge.
png
[2] Lise Meitner UNKNOWN
source: http://www3.findagrave.com/photo
s/2007/278/15166236_119171400954.jpg
[04/30/1939 AD]
Mansfield, Ohio, USA
[1] Elektro at the 1939 World's
Fair UNKNOWN
source: http://img.youtube.com/vi/T35A3g
_GvSg/0.jpg
[2] Inside working of Westinghouse
Elektro walking robot UNKNOWN
source: http://davidszondy.com/future/ro
bot/elektro-interior.jpg
[07/16/1940 AD]
California, USA
[1] Figure 1 from: Corson, D. R.;
MacKenzie, K. R.; Segrè, E.
''Artificially Radioactive Element
85''. Phys. Rev. 1940, 58: 672–678.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRev.58
.672 {Segre_Emilio_19400716.pdf} COPYR
IGHTED
source: http://dx.doi.org/10.1103%2FPhys
Rev.58.672
[2] This is a file from the Wikimedia
Commons Los Alamos wartime badge
photo: Emilio Segrè Source: Los
Alamos National Laboratory,
http://www.lanl.gov/history/wartime/staf
f.shtml PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/71/Emilio_Segre_ID_badge
.png
[11/04/1942 AD]
detected.
University), Swarthmore, Pennsylvania,
USA
[1] Figure 1 from: Strand, K. A., ''61
Cygni as a Triple System'',
Publications of the Astronomical
Society of the Pacific, Vol. 55, No.
322,
p.29-32. http://articles.adsabs.harvard
.edu/full/seri/PASP./0055//0000030.000.h
tml {Strand_K_A_19421104.pdf}
UNKNOWN
source: http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du/full/seri/PASP./0055//0000030.000.htm
l
[2] Description
KajStrand.jpg English: Kaj Aage
Gunnar Strand (27 February 1907 - 31
October 2000) was director of the U.S.
Naval Observatory from 1963 to 1977. He
specialized in astrometry, especially
work on double stars and stellar
distances. Date
2000(2000) Source
http://ad.usno.navy.mil/wds/history
/strand.html Author
U.S.Navy Permission (Reusing
this file) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/59/KajStrand.jpg
[12/02/1942 AD]
reaction.
Illinois, USA
[1] Figure 5 from: ''Experimental
production of a Divergent Chain
Reaction'', American Journal of
Physics, 20, 1952,
536-558. http://ajp.aapt.org/resource/1
/ajpias/v20/i9/p536_s1 {Fermi_Enrico_19
520627.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://ajp.aapt.org/resource/1/a
jpias/v20/i9/p536_s1
[2] Enrico Fermi from Argonne
National Laboratory PD
source: http://www.osti.gov/accomplishme
nts/images/08.gif
[11/01/1943 AD]
molecule responsible for physical
structural changes and the inheritance
of those structural changes for some
bacteria.
Rockefeller University) New York City,
New York, USA
[1] EXPLANATION OF PLATE The
photograph was made by Mr. Joseph B.
Haulenbeek. FIG. 1. Colonies of the R
variant (R36A) derived from
Pneumococcus Type n. Plated on blood
agar from a culture grown in serum
broth in the absence of
the transforming substance. X
3.5. FIO. 2. Colonies on blood agar of
the same cells after induction of
transformation during growth in the
same medium with the addition of active
transforming principle isolated from
Type nI pneumococci. The smooth,
glistening, mucoid colonies shown are
characteristic of Pneumococcus Type In
and readily distinguishable from the
small, rough colonies of the parent R
strain illustrated in Fig. 1.
X3.5. Downloaded from jem.rupress.org
on December 24, 2010 Published
February 1, 1944 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://jem.rupress.org/content/7
9/2/137.full.pdf
[2] Description Oswald T. Avery
portrait 1937.jpg Portrait of Oswald
T. Avery, cropped from a Rockefeller
Institute for Medical Research staff
photograph. Date
1937(1937) Source
http://profiles.nlm.nih.gov/CC/A/A/
L/P/_/ccaalp_.jpg Author
Unknown Permission (Reusing this
file) Reproduced with permission
of the Rockefeller Archive Center. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/eb/Oswald_T._Avery_portr
ait_1937.jpg
[07/16/1945 AD]
exploded.
Muerto (Journey of Death) desert, New
Mexico, USA
[1] The fully assembled Gadget. PD
source: http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/
Usa/Tests/GadgetB1024c10.jpg
[2] First uranium-fission explosion
''trinity'' 16 ms after detonation. PD
source: http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/
Usa/Tests/Trin2.jpg
[10/08/1945 AD]
Newton, Massachusetts, USA
[1] Figure from: [1] US patent
2495429, Spencer, Percy L., ''Method of
treating foodstuffs'', issued
1950-January-24 www.google.com/patents?
id=x_tuAAAAEBAJ
and http://worldwide.espacenet.com/text
doc?DB=EPODOC&IDX=US2495429 PD
source: www.google.com/patents?id=x_tuAA
AAEBAJ
[2] Spencer, Percy with
Magnetron UNKNOWN
source: http://www.raytheon.com/newsroom
/photogal/photos/percywithmagnetron_l.jp
g
[09/17/1946 AD]
found in a bacteria (E. Coli).
Connecticut, USA
[1] Joshua Lederberg UNKNOWN
source: http://t3.gstatic.com/images?q=t
bn:ANd9GcTip9U51ETe5PA23tMz7X9VOE3pFURQn
PV-AHXSb4--tMcozbbL&t=1
[2] Edward Lawrie Tatum Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1958/tatum.jpg
[06/26/1947 AD]
(bismuth) fissioned with deuterons,
helium ions or neutrons.
California, USA
[01/23/1950 AD]
identified.
California, USA
[1] Description Berkeley 60-inch
cyclotron.gif English: Photograph
shows the 60-inch cyclotron at the
University of California Lawrence
Radiation Laboratory, Berkeley, in
August, 1939. The machine was the most
powerful atom-smasher in the world at
the time. It had started operating
early in the year. During the period of
the photograph Dr. Edwin M. McMillan
was doing the work which led to the
discovery of neptunium (element 93) a
year later. The instrument was used
later by Dr. Glenn T. Seaborg and his
colleagues for the discovery of element
94 (plutonium) early in 1941.
Subsequently, other transuranium
elements were discovered with the
machine, as well as many radioisotopes,
including carbon-14. For their work,
Drs. Seaborg and McMillan shared the
Nobel Prize in 1951. The machine was
used for the ''long bombardments''
which produced the first weighable and
visible quantities of plutonium, which
was used at Chicago by Seaborg and his
colleagues to work out the method for
separating plutonium on an industrial
scale at the Hanford, Washington,
plutonium pro... Русский:
Фотография
показывает
60-дюймовый циклотрон
в университете
Лаборатории California
Lawrence Radiation, Беркли, в
августе 1939. Машина
была самым сильным
ускорителем частиц в
мире в то время. Date
1939(1939) Source National
Archives logo.svg This image is
available from the Archival Research
Catalog of the National Archives and
Records Administration under the ARC
Identifier 558594. This tag does not
indicate the copyright status of the
attached work. A normal copyright tag
is still required. See
Commons:Licensing for more information.
US-NARA-ARC-Logo.svg Author
Department of Energy. Office of
Public Affairs PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/72/Berkeley_60-inch_cycl
otron.gif
[2] Glenn Seaborg (1912 -
1999) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.atomicarchive.com/Ima
ges/bio/B51.jpg
[03/15/1950 AD]
identified.
California, USA
[1] Description Berkeley 60-inch
cyclotron.gif English: Photograph
shows the 60-inch cyclotron at the
University of California Lawrence
Radiation Laboratory, Berkeley, in
August, 1939. The machine was the most
powerful atom-smasher in the world at
the time. It had started operating
early in the year. During the period of
the photograph Dr. Edwin M. McMillan
was doing the work which led to the
discovery of neptunium (element 93) a
year later. The instrument was used
later by Dr. Glenn T. Seaborg and his
colleagues for the discovery of element
94 (plutonium) early in 1941.
Subsequently, other transuranium
elements were discovered with the
machine, as well as many radioisotopes,
including carbon-14. For their work,
Drs. Seaborg and McMillan shared the
Nobel Prize in 1951. The machine was
used for the ''long bombardments''
which produced the first weighable and
visible quantities of plutonium, which
was used at Chicago by Seaborg and his
colleagues to work out the method for
separating plutonium on an industrial
scale at the Hanford, Washington,
plutonium pro... Русский:
Фотография
показывает
60-дюймовый циклотрон
в университете
Лаборатории California
Lawrence Radiation, Беркли, в
августе 1939. Машина
была самым сильным
ускорителем частиц в
мире в то время. Date
1939(1939) Source National
Archives logo.svg This image is
available from the Archival Research
Catalog of the National Archives and
Records Administration under the ARC
Identifier 558594. This tag does not
indicate the copyright status of the
attached work. A normal copyright tag
is still required. See
Commons:Licensing for more information.
US-NARA-ARC-Logo.svg Author
Department of Energy. Office of
Public Affairs PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/72/Berkeley_60-inch_cycl
otron.gif
[2] Glenn Seaborg (1912 -
1999) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.atomicarchive.com/Ima
ges/bio/B51.jpg
[03/15/1950 AD]
(copper, bromine, silver, and tin).
California, USA
[1] Description Berkeley 60-inch
cyclotron.gif English: Photograph
shows the 60-inch cyclotron at the
University of California Lawrence
Radiation Laboratory, Berkeley, in
August, 1939. The machine was the most
powerful atom-smasher in the world at
the time. It had started operating
early in the year. During the period of
the photograph Dr. Edwin M. McMillan
was doing the work which led to the
discovery of neptunium (element 93) a
year later. The instrument was used
later by Dr. Glenn T. Seaborg and his
colleagues for the discovery of element
94 (plutonium) early in 1941.
Subsequently, other transuranium
elements were discovered with the
machine, as well as many radioisotopes,
including carbon-14. For their work,
Drs. Seaborg and McMillan shared the
Nobel Prize in 1951. The machine was
used for the ''long bombardments''
which produced the first weighable and
visible quantities of plutonium, which
was used at Chicago by Seaborg and his
colleagues to work out the method for
separating plutonium on an industrial
scale at the Hanford, Washington,
plutonium pro... Русский:
Фотография
показывает
60-дюймовый циклотрон
в университете
Лаборатории California
Lawrence Radiation, Беркли, в
августе 1939. Машина
была самым сильным
ускорителем частиц в
мире в то время. Date
1939(1939) Source National
Archives logo.svg This image is
available from the Archival Research
Catalog of the National Archives and
Records Administration under the ARC
Identifier 558594. This tag does not
indicate the copyright status of the
attached work. A normal copyright tag
is still required. See
Commons:Licensing for more information.
US-NARA-ARC-Logo.svg Author
Department of Energy. Office of
Public Affairs PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/72/Berkeley_60-inch_cycl
otron.gif
[2] Glenn Seaborg (1912 -
1999) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.atomicarchive.com/Ima
ges/bio/B51.jpg
[09/11/1950 AD]
California, USA
[1] Description LWA Picture
Final.jpg English: Head Photo of Luis
W Alvarez Date 1968(1968) Source
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/
physics/laureates/1968/alvarez.html Aut
hor Nobel Foundation PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6e/LWA_Picture_Final.jpg
[04/02/1952 AD]
Coli).
Wisconsin, USA and (Istituto
Sicroterapico Milanese) Milan,
Italy
[1] Joshua Lederberg UNKNOWN
source: http://t3.gstatic.com/images?q=t
bn:ANd9GcTip9U51ETe5PA23tMz7X9VOE3pFURQn
PV-AHXSb4--tMcozbbL&t=1
[2] Two bacterial cells caught in the
act of plasmid-mediated conjugation.
Many plasmids are able to transfer
horizontally from an infected donor
(top) to an uninfected recipient
(bottom) via conjugation. Conjugation
is initiated by contact between donor
and recipient cells via a
plasmid-encoded protein appendage
called a sex pilus. Conjugation results
in the one-way transfer of a copy of
the plasmid genome from donor to
recipient. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.yale.edu/turner/graph
ics/Fig4.jpg
[04/02/1953 AD]
understood.
Cambridge) Cambridge, England
[1] Figure 1 from: J. D. WATSON & F.
H. C. CRICK, ''Molecular structure of
nucleic acids; a structure for
deoxyribose nucleic acid'', Nature,
(1953) volume: 171 issue: 4356 page:
737. http://www.nature.com/nature/journ
al/v171/n4356/abs/171737a0.html {Crick_
Francis_Harry_Compton_19530402.pdf} COP
YRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v171/n4356/abs/171737a0.html
[2] Francis Harry Compton Crick
UNKNOWN
source: http://scientistshowtell.wikispa
ces.com/file/view/FrancisHarryComptonCri
ck2.jpg/39149552/FrancisHarryComptonCric
k2.jpg
[04/28/1954 AD]
New York City, New York, USA
[1] Chemical structure diagram
from: Vincent du Vigneaud, Charlotte
Ressler, John M. Swan, Carleton W.
Roberts, Panayotis G. Katsoyannis,
''The Synthesis of Oxytocin'', J. Am.
Chem. Soc., 1954, 76 (12), pp
3115–3121 http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs
/10.1021/ja01641a004 {Du_Vigneaud_Vince
nt_19540428.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1
021/ja01641a004
[2] Vincent du Vigneaud COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/chemistry/laureates/1955/vigneaud.jpg
[05/05/1954 AD]
New York, USA
[1] Figures 1 and 2 from: J. P.
Gordon, H. J. Zeiger, and C. H. Townes,
''Molecular Microwave Oscillator and
New Hyperfine Structure in the
Microwave Spectrum of NH3'', Phys. Rev.
95, 282–284
(1954). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v95/i1/p282_1 {Townes_Charles_Hard_19
540505.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v95/i1/p282_1
[2] Charles Hard Townes Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/physics/laureates/1964/townes.jpg
[04/18/1955 AD]
identified.
California, USA
[1] Description Berkeley 60-inch
cyclotron.gif English: Photograph
shows the 60-inch cyclotron at the
University of California Lawrence
Radiation Laboratory, Berkeley, in
August, 1939. The machine was the most
powerful atom-smasher in the world at
the time. It had started operating
early in the year. During the period of
the photograph Dr. Edwin M. McMillan
was doing the work which led to the
discovery of neptunium (element 93) a
year later. The instrument was used
later by Dr. Glenn T. Seaborg and his
colleagues for the discovery of element
94 (plutonium) early in 1941.
Subsequently, other transuranium
elements were discovered with the
machine, as well as many radioisotopes,
including carbon-14. For their work,
Drs. Seaborg and McMillan shared the
Nobel Prize in 1951. The machine was
used for the ''long bombardments''
which produced the first weighable and
visible quantities of plutonium, which
was used at Chicago by Seaborg and his
colleagues to work out the method for
separating plutonium on an industrial
scale at the Hanford, Washington,
plutonium pro... Русский:
Фотография
показывает
60-дюймовый циклотрон
в университете
Лаборатории California
Lawrence Radiation, Беркли, в
августе 1939. Машина
была самым сильным
ускорителем частиц в
мире в то время. Date
1939(1939) Source National
Archives logo.svg This image is
available from the Archival Research
Catalog of the National Archives and
Records Administration under the ARC
Identifier 558594. This tag does not
indicate the copyright status of the
attached work. A normal copyright tag
is still required. See
Commons:Licensing for more information.
US-NARA-ARC-Logo.svg Author
Department of Energy. Office of
Public Affairs PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/72/Berkeley_60-inch_cycl
otron.gif
[2] Glenn Seaborg (1912 -
1999) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.atomicarchive.com/Ima
ges/bio/B51.jpg
[06/20/1955 AD]
"fermium" identified.
California, USA
[1] Description Berkeley 60-inch
cyclotron.gif English: Photograph
shows the 60-inch cyclotron at the
University of California Lawrence
Radiation Laboratory, Berkeley, in
August, 1939. The machine was the most
powerful atom-smasher in the world at
the time. It had started operating
early in the year. During the period of
the photograph Dr. Edwin M. McMillan
was doing the work which led to the
discovery of neptunium (element 93) a
year later. The instrument was used
later by Dr. Glenn T. Seaborg and his
colleagues for the discovery of element
94 (plutonium) early in 1941.
Subsequently, other transuranium
elements were discovered with the
machine, as well as many radioisotopes,
including carbon-14. For their work,
Drs. Seaborg and McMillan shared the
Nobel Prize in 1951. The machine was
used for the ''long bombardments''
which produced the first weighable and
visible quantities of plutonium, which
was used at Chicago by Seaborg and his
colleagues to work out the method for
separating plutonium on an industrial
scale at the Hanford, Washington,
plutonium pro... Русский:
Фотография
показывает
60-дюймовый циклотрон
в университете
Лаборатории California
Lawrence Radiation, Беркли, в
августе 1939. Машина
была самым сильным
ускорителем частиц в
мире в то время. Date
1939(1939) Source National
Archives logo.svg This image is
available from the Archival Research
Catalog of the National Archives and
Records Administration under the ARC
Identifier 558594. This tag does not
indicate the copyright status of the
attached work. A normal copyright tag
is still required. See
Commons:Licensing for more information.
US-NARA-ARC-Logo.svg Author
Department of Energy. Office of
Public Affairs PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/72/Berkeley_60-inch_cycl
otron.gif
[2] Glenn Seaborg (1912 -
1999) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.atomicarchive.com/Ima
ges/bio/B51.jpg
[10/24/1955 AD]
California, USA
[1] Figure 1 from: Owen Chamberlain,
Emilio Segrè, Clyde Wiegand, and
Thomas Ypsilantis, ''Observation of
Antiprotons'', Phys. Rev. 100,
947–950
(1955). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v100/i3/p947_1 {Segre_Emilio_19551024
.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v100/i3/p947_1
[2] Description Segre.jpg English:
Emilio Segrè Date
1959(1959) Source
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/
physics/laureates/1959/segre-bio.html A
uthor Nobel foundation PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/41/Segre.jpg
[10/04/1957 AD]
Sputnik 1.
km southwest of the small town of
Baikonur) Kazakhstan (, Soviet
Union)
[1] Description Sputnik
asm.jpg English: A replica of Sputnik
1, the first artificial satellite in
the world to be put into outer space:
the replica is stored in the National
Air and Space Museum. فارسی:
مدل ماهواره
اسپوتنیک-۱، نخستین
ماهواره فضایی
جهان Suomi: Sputnik 1:n, maailman
ensimmäinen ihmisen laukaiseman Maata
kiertävän keinotekoisen satelliittin,
jäljennös. Date
2004(2004) Source
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/database
/MasterCatalog?sc=1957-001B Author
NSSDC, NASA PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/be/Sputnik_asm.jpg
[06/06/1958 AD]
identified.
California, USA
[1] Figure 1 from: A. Ghiorso, B. G.
Harvey, G. R. Choppin, S. G. Thompson,
and G. T. Seaborg, ''New Element
Mendelevium, Atomic Number 101'', Phys.
Rev. 98, 1518–1519
(1955). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v98/i5/p1518_1 {Seaborg_Glenn_T_19550
418.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v98/i5/p1518_1
[2] Glenn Seaborg (1912 -
1999) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.atomicarchive.com/Ima
ges/bio/B51.jpg
[06/06/1958 AD]
identified.
California, USA
[1] Description Berkeley 60-inch
cyclotron.gif English: Photograph
shows the 60-inch cyclotron at the
University of California Lawrence
Radiation Laboratory, Berkeley, in
August, 1939. The machine was the most
powerful atom-smasher in the world at
the time. It had started operating
early in the year. During the period of
the photograph Dr. Edwin M. McMillan
was doing the work which led to the
discovery of neptunium (element 93) a
year later. The instrument was used
later by Dr. Glenn T. Seaborg and his
colleagues for the discovery of element
94 (plutonium) early in 1941.
Subsequently, other transuranium
elements were discovered with the
machine, as well as many radioisotopes,
including carbon-14. For their work,
Drs. Seaborg and McMillan shared the
Nobel Prize in 1951. The machine was
used for the ''long bombardments''
which produced the first weighable and
visible quantities of plutonium, which
was used at Chicago by Seaborg and his
colleagues to work out the method for
separating plutonium on an industrial
scale at the Hanford, Washington,
plutonium pro... Русский:
Фотография
показывает
60-дюймовый циклотрон
в университете
Лаборатории California
Lawrence Radiation, Беркли, в
августе 1939. Машина
была самым сильным
ускорителем частиц в
мире в то время. Date
1939(1939) Source National
Archives logo.svg This image is
available from the Archival Research
Catalog of the National Archives and
Records Administration under the ARC
Identifier 558594. This tag does not
indicate the copyright status of the
attached work. A normal copyright tag
is still required. See
Commons:Licensing for more information.
US-NARA-ARC-Logo.svg Author
Department of Energy. Office of
Public Affairs PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/72/Berkeley_60-inch_cycl
otron.gif
[2] Glenn Seaborg (1912 -
1999) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.atomicarchive.com/Ima
ges/bio/B51.jpg
[10/08/1958 AD]
[1] Description English: Rune
Elmqvist made the first pacemaker and
Åke Senning implanted it. Senning
trained under Clarence Crafoord. They
all worked closely together in
Stockholm. From left to right, you can
see Senning, Elmqvist & Crafoord. The
picture was taken in 1954. It was
published in Ann Thorac Surg. 2004
Jun;77(6):2250-8. Date 2 June
2004 Source Professor Marko Turina,
University Hospital, Zurich Author
Professor Marko Turina, University
Hospital, Zurich CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/4a/Senning%2C_Elmqvist_%
26_Crafoord_1954.jpg
[2] ''Pioneers of Cardiology: Rune
Elmqvist, MD'', Circulation, June 5,
2007. http://circ.ahajournals.org/conte
nt/115/22/f109.full.pdf COPYRIGHTED
source: http://circ.ahajournals.org/cont
ent/115/22/f109.full.pdf
[09/14/1959 AD]
"Luna 2", impacts the moon of Earth.
Kazakhstan (was Soviet Union)
[1] Luna 2 PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/plane
tary/image/luna_2.jpg
[2] Luna 1 PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/image
/spacecraft/luna1_vsm.jpg
[11/05/1959 AD]
controlled remotely. An artificial
heart pacemaker is remotely controlled
with radio.
New Haven, New Jersey, USA
[1] Figure 3 from: Glenn WWL, Mauro A,
Longo E, Lavietes PH, MacKay FJ The
Radiofrequency Cardiac Pacemaker.
Remote stimulation of the heart by
radiofrequency transmission. Clinical
application to a patient with
Stoke-Adams Syndrome. New Engl J Med
1959:262;948-951 http://www.nejm.org/do
i/pdf/10.1056/NEJM195911052611905 COPYR
IGHTED
source: http://www.nejm.org/doi/pdf/10.1
056/NEJM195911052611905
[2] Figure 1 from: Glenn WWL, Mauro
A, Longo E, Lavietes PH, MacKay FJ The
Radiofrequency Cardiac Pacemaker.
Remote stimulation of the heart by
radiofrequency transmission. Clinical
application to a patient with
Stoke-Adams Syndrome. New Engl J Med
1959:262;948-951 http://www.nejm.org/do
i/pdf/10.1056/NEJM195911052611905 COPYR
IGHTED
source: http://www.nejm.org/doi/pdf/10.1
056/NEJM195911052611905
[04/22/1960 AD]
California
[1] Figure 1 from: Theodore H.
Mainman, ''Ruby Laser Systems'', Patent
number: 3353115, Filing date: Apr 13,
1961, Issue date: Nov 14,
1967 http://www.google.com/patents?id=b
-lUAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&sou
rce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=f
alse
{Maimon_Theodore_Harold_19610413.pdf}
PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=b-lUAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f
=false
[2] Description Ted Maiman Holding
First Laser.jpg English: Theodore
Maiman holding his invention of the
world's first laser (invented May 16,
1960) Date 16 May
1983(1983-05-16) Source
Template:TRW Author
Kathleenfmaiman Permission (Reusi
ng this file) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/df/Ted_Maiman_Holding_Fi
rst_Laser.jpg
[12/28/1960 AD]
regulates protein synthesis in the cell
(regulatory genes, operons).
[1] François Jacob, b. 1920 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.pasteurfoundation.org
/images/Jacob.jpg
[2] Jacques Monod, b. 1910 d.
1976 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.pasteurfoundation.org
/images/Monod.jpg
[04/12/1961 AD]
Earth.
U.S.S.R.)
[1] The Vostok 1 capsule as recovered
after landing. Currently on display at
the RKK Energiya museum in Korolyov CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/7/70/Vostok_1_after_landing.jpg
[2] Description Yuri Gagarin in
Vostok 1 Source Mission
photography Portion used
Sufficient to show the face of
Gagarin in his spacesuit within the
capsule Low resolution?
yes COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/b/b1/Vostok1.jpg
[04/13/1961 AD]
identified.
California, USA
[1] Lawrencium on the periodic
table GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law
rencium
[12/30/1961 AD]
amino acids in proteins is understood.
Cambridge, England
[1] Figure 1 from: F. H. C. CRICK,
LESLIE BARNETT, S. BRENNER & R. J.
WATTS-TOBIN, ''General Nature of the
Genetic Code for Proteins'', Nature
192, 1227 - 1232 (30 December 1961);
doi:10.1038/1921227a0 http://www.nature
.com/nature/journal/v192/n4809/abs/19212
27a0.html
{Crick_Francis_Harry_Compton_19611230.
pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v192/n4809/abs/1921227a0.html
[2] Francis Harry Compton Crick
UNKNOWN
source: http://scientistshowtell.wikispa
ces.com/file/view/FrancisHarryComptonCri
ck2.jpg/39149552/FrancisHarryComptonCric
k2.jpg
[10/26/1962 AD]
data.
Angeles, California, USA
[1] From: Wayne R. Johnson, ''High
Speed, High Density, Optical Recording
System'', Patent number:
3154370 Filing date: Oct 26, 1962,
Issue date: Oct 27,
1964 http://www.google.com/patents?id=H
9x0AAAAEBAJ
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=H9x0AAAAEBAJ
[10/08/1964 AD]
("Rutherfordium").
Laboratory of Nuclear Reactions)
Moscow, (U.S.S.R. now) Russia
[1] Figure 1 from: G.N. Flerov, Yu.Ts.
Oganesyan, Yu.V. Lobanov, V.I.
Kuznetsov, V.A. Druin, V.P. Perelygin,
K.A. Gavrilov, S.P. Tretiakova, V.M.
Plotko, ''Synthesis and physical
identification of the isotope of
element 104 with mass number 260'',
Physics Letters, Volume 13, Issue 1, 1
November 1964, Pages 73-75, ISSN
0031-9163, DOI:
10.1016/0031-9163(64)90313-0. http://ww
w.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B6X4
4-46M7GWT-DM/2/d343ea63b0ce878c4dcd550b2
f8d8d22 {Flerov_Georgii_Nikolaevich_196
41008.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence/article/B6X44-46M7GWT-DM/2/d343ea63
b0ce878c4dcd550b2f8d8d22
[2] Georgy Nikolaevich FLEROV
UNKNOWN
source: http://159.93.28.88/flnr/history
/flerov.jpg
[1964 AD]
USA
[1] George Heilmeier with
LCD 1967 COPYRIGHTED FAIR USE
source: http://www.wired.com/images_blog
![http://www.wired.com/images_blogs/gadgetlab/2009/05/heilmeier_with-lcd1.jpg and H Kawamoto, "The history of liquid-crystal displays", Proceedings of the IEEE [0018-9219] Kawamoto (2002) volume: 90 issue: 4 page: 460. {kawamoto-history_of_lcds-procieee-2002.pdf} and George H. Heilmeier, "Liquid crystal displays: An experimentin interdisciplinary research that worked", vol 23, Num 7, July 1976. http://ucelinks.cdlib.org:8888/sfx_local?sid=google&auinit=GH&aulast=Heilmeier&atitle=Liquid+crystal+displays:+An+experiment+in+interdisciplinary+research+that+worked&title=IEEE+transactions+on+electron+devices&volume=23&issue=7&date=1976&spage=780&issn=0018-9383 {Heilmeier_George_LCD_1976.pdf}](http://www.wired.com/images_blogs/gadgetlab/2009/05/heilmeier_with-lcd1.jpg
and
H Kawamoto, ){kind=link}
s/gadgetlab/2009/05/heilmeier_with-lcd1.
jpg and H Kawamoto, "The history
of liquid-crystal displays",
Proceedings of the IEEE [0018-9219]
Kawamoto (2002) volume: 90 issue: 4
page: 460.
{kawamoto-history_of_lcds-procieee-200
2.pdf} and George H. Heilmeier,
"Liquid crystal displays: An experiment
in interdisciplinary research that
worked", vol 23, Num 7, July
1976. http://ucelinks.cdlib.org:8888/sf
x_local?sid=google&auinit=GH&aulast=Heil
meier&atitle=Liquid+crystal+displays:+An
+experiment+in+interdisciplinary+researc
h+that+worked&title=IEEE+transactions+on
+electron+devices&volume=23&issue=7&date
=1976&spage=780&issn=0018-9383 {Heilmei
er_George_LCD_1976.pdf}
[2] George Heilmeier COPYRIGHTED ON
INTERNET
source: http://www.invent.org/2009induct
ion/images/George_Heilmeier.jpg
[07/14/1965 AD]
reach planet Mars, and to return images
of the surface, Mariner 4.
[1] Mariner 4 image 8E
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/plane
tary/image/mariner4_8e.gif
[03/01/1966 AD]
the Soviet "Venera 3".
[1] Venera 3 PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/plane
tary/image/venera_3.jpg
[04/04/1966 AD]
body beyond the earth, Luna 10 orbits
the Moon.
Kazakhstan (was Soviet Union)
[1] Luna 10 PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/image
/spacecraft/luna10.jpg
[2] First image of the far side of the
Moon Earth's Moon The Luna 3
spacecraft returned the first views
ever of the far side of the Moon. The
first image was taken at 03:30 UT on 7
October at a distance of 63,500 km
after Luna 3 had passed the Moon and
looked back at the sunlit far side. The
last image was taken 40 minutes later
from 66,700 km. A total of 29
photographs were taken, covering 70% of
the far side. The photographs were very
noisy and of low resolution, but many
features could be recognized. This is
the first image returned by Luna 3,
taken by the wide-angle lens, it showed
the far side of the Moon was very
different from the near side, most
noticeably in its lack of lunar maria
(the dark areas). The right
three-quarters of the disk are the far
side. The dark spot at upper right is
Mare Moscoviense, the dark area at
lower left is Mare Smythii. The small
dark circle at lower right with the
white dot in the center is the crater
Tsiolkovskiy and its central peak. The
Moon is 3475 km in diameter and north
is up in this image. (Luna 3-1) PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/imgca
t/hires/lu3_1.gif
[04/03/1967 AD]
(verify laser reading)
Monica, California, USA
[1] Figure from: David Paul Gregg,
''TRANSPARENT RECORDING DISC'', Patent
number: 3430966, Filing date: Apr 3,
1967, Issue date: Mar 4,
1969. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
H6JnAAAAEBAJ PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=H6JnAAAAEBAJ
[02/09/1968 AD]
Cambridge) Cambridge, England
[1] Figure 1 from: A. HEWISH, S. J.
BELL, J. D. H. PILKINGTON, P. F. SCOTT,
R. A. COLLINS, ''Observation of a
Rapidly Pulsating Radio Source'',
Nature 217, 709-713 (24 February 1968)
doi:10.1038/217709a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v217/n5130/abs/217709
a0.html {Hewish_Antony_19680209.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v217/n5130/abs/217709a0.html
[2] Antony Hewish Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/physics/laureates/1974/hewish.jpg
[07/21/1969 AD]
surface of the moon of Earth, "Apollo
11".
[1] ''That's one small step for man,
one giant leap for mankind.'' At 10:56
p.m. EDT on July 20, 1969, Neil
Armstrong became the first human to set
foot on the Moon. This image was taken
from the telecast of the event, watched
by over half a billion people around
the world. Armstrong composed the quote
after landing on the Moon, he had meant
to say, ''That's one small step for
aman ...''. The pictures were taken by
the Apollo lunar surface camera,
mounted on one of the LM legs. The
black bar running through the center of
the picture is an anomaly in the
Goldstone ground data system. (NASA
photo ID S69-42583) PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/plane
tary/lunar/images/a11tvarm.jpg
[2] Here Aldrin is unloading the
passive seismometer of the Early Apollo
Scientific Experiments Package (EASEP)
from the lunar module equipment bay.
The white apparatus in the foreground
is the 35 mm stereo close-up camera.
Beyond the right leg is the solar wind
experiment, and beyond that the lunar
surface TV camera. The LM legs are
wrapped in foil to provide thermal
insulation. There is a split rock in
the lower right of the frame which is
presumably ejecta from a nearby impact
crater. (NASA photo ID
AS11-40-5931) PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/plane
tary/lunar/images/as11_40_5931.jpg
[1969 AD]
computers to communicate over the
telephone wire network).
Angeles) Los Angeles, California, USA
and (Stanford Research Institute)
Stanford, California, USA and
(University of California Santa
Barbara) Santa Barbara, California,
USA, and (University of Utah) Salt Lake
City, Utah, USA
[01/29/1970 AD]
Hill, New Jersey, USA
[1] Figure 7 from: ''George E. Smith -
Nobel Lecture''. Nobelprize.org. 29 May
2011
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/2009/smith-lecture.html {S
mith_George_E_20091208.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/physics/laureates/2009/smith-lecture.
html
[2] Willard Boyle (Property of AT&T
Archives) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.casca.ca/ecass/issues
/2006-me/features/boyle/boyle_files/imag
e001.jpg
[06/16/1970 AD]
Wisconsin, USA
[1] Figure 1 from: K. L. AGARWAL, H.
BÜCHI, M. H. CARUTHERS, N. GUPTA, H.
G. KHORANA, K. KLEPPE, A. KUMAR, E.
OHTSUKA, U. L. RAJBHANDARY, J. H. VAN
DE SANDE, V. SGARAMELLA, H. WEBER & T.
YAMADA , ''Total synthesis of the gene
for an alanine transfer ribonucleic
acid from yeast'', Nature 227, 27 - 34
(04 July 1970);
doi:10.1038/227027a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v227/n5253/abs/227027
a0.html {Khorana_Har_Gobind_19700616.pd
f} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v227/n5253/abs/227027a0.html
[2] Har Gobind Khorana Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1968/khorana.jpg
[11/14/1971 AD]
planet (Mars).
[1] Mariner 9 PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/image
/spacecraft/mariner09.jpg
[2] Mariner 9 imagery of Olympus Mons
volcano on Mars compared to the eight
principal Hawaiian islands at the same
scale. (Mariner 9 image mosaic,
NASA/JPL) PD
source: http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/volc/fi
g38.gif
[11/27/1971 AD]
2").
[1] Mars 3 Lander PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/image
/spacecraft/mars3_lander_vsm.jpg
[2] Description Mars3
iki.jpg English: The Mars 3
spacecraft Date Source
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/image/sp
acecraft/mars3_iki.jpg Author
NASA PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/13/Mars3_iki.jpg
[12/02/1971 AD]
land on planet Mars and return data:
the Soviet "Mars 3".
[1] Signal from mars-3 Lander UNKNOWN
source: http://www.mentallandscape.com/C
_Mars03_lander.jpg
[2] Mars 3 Lander PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/image
/spacecraft/mars3_lander_vsm.jpg
[07/31/1972 AD]
adding DNA to bacteria.
Stanford, California, USA
[1] Description Paul Berg in
1980.jpg Paul Berg - 1980 Albert
Lasker Basic Medical Research Award
Winner Date 1980(1980) Source
http://profiles.nlm.nih.gov/CD/B/B/
L/L/ Author
Unknown Permission (Reusing this
file) Courtesy of the National
Library of Medicine. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/88/Paul_Berg_in_1980.jpg
[07/18/1973 AD]
segments of DNA into bacteria DNA.
Medicine) Stanford, California, USA and
(University of California) San
Francisco, California, USA
[1] Figure 7 from: Stanley N. Cohen,
Annie C. Y. Chang, Herbert W. Boyer,
and Robert B. Helling, ''Construction
of Biologically Functional Bacterial
Plasmids In Vitro'', PNAS November 1,
1973 vol. 70 no. 11
3240-3244. http://www.pnas.org/content/
70/11/3240.short {Helling_Robert_B_1973
0718.pdf}
source: http://www.pnas.org/content/70/1
1/3240.short
[2] [t Verify this is the correct
Stanley N Cohen at Stanford] Stanley
N. Cohen, M.D. UNKNOWN
source: http://sncohenlab.stanford.edu/i
mages/stan_cohen.jpg
[12/03/1973 AD]
10") passes and sends the first
close-up images of planet Jupiter.
[1] Description
http://history.nasa.gov/SP-349/p142.jpg
English: Pioneer 10 Jupiter
encounter. Date Source
http://history.nasa.gov/SP-349/ch8.
htm Author
NASA Permission (Reusing this
file) PD
source: http://history.nasa.gov/SP-349/p
142.jpg
[2] Pioneer 10 PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/image
/spacecraft/pioneer10-11.jpg
[1974 AD]
Systems) Albuquerque, New Mexico, USA
(verify)
[1] Description Altair 8800
Computer.jpg Altair 8800 Computer
with 8 inch floppy disk
system. Circuit boards - left to
right 1. Seals 8K Static RAM
board 2. MITS floppy disk
controller (2 board set) 3. MITS
floppy disk controller 4. MITS 16K
Dynamic RAM board 5. MITS 16K
Dynamic RAM board 6. MITS SIO-2
Dual serial port board 7. Solid
State Music PROM board 8. MITS 8080
CPU board Photo taken at the Vintage
Computer Festival 7.0 held at the
Computer History Museum, Mountain View
California. November 6-7, 2004
[1] This was one of Altair systems
exhibited by Erik Klein [2] Photo by
Michael Holley, November 2004 Nikon
E3200 with on camera flash. Touched up
in Adobe Photoshop Elements 3.0. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/01/Altair_8800_Computer.
jpg
[10/20/1975 AD]
transmits images from the surface of
Venus (Soviet "Venera 9").
[1] Image of the surface of Venus from
Venera 9 PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/imgca
t/hires/v09_lander.gif
[2] Venera 9 Descent Craft PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/plane
tary/image/venera_9_lander.jpg
[1975 AD]
[1] ''The Incredible Human Machine'',
National Geographic
(1975) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://ecx.images-amazon.com/ima
ges/I/51PVRJGKR8L._SL500_AA300_.jpg
[07/20/1976 AD]
from the surface of Mars (Viking 1
lander).
[1] First Mars Surface Photo Viking 1
first image Collection: NASA Great
Images in Nasa
Collection Title: First Mars Surface
Photo Full Description: The image
above is the first photograph ever
taken from the surface of Mars. It was
taken by the Viking 1 lander shortly
after it touched down on Mars on July
20, 1976. Part of footpad #2 can be
seen in the lower right corner, with
sand and dust in the center of it,
probably deposited during landing. The
next day, color photographs were also
taken on the Martian surface. The
primary objectives of the Viking
missions, which was composed of two
spacecraft, were to obtain
high-resolution images of the Martian
surface, characterize the structure and
composition of the atmosphere and
surface, and search for evidence of
life on Mars. Date: 07/20/1976 NASA
Center: Jet Propulsion
Laboratory Subject
Category: Planet-Mars Subject
Category: Viking-Pathfinder-So
journer Keywords: Laboratory Keywords
: Jet Keywords: Propulsion Keywords:
Viking Keywords: Mars Keywords: P-
17053 Audience: General
Public facet_what: Mars facet_what:
Viking facet_what: Viking 1
Lander facet_where: Jet Propulsion
Laboratory facet_where: Mars facet_wh
ere: Jet Propulsion Laboratory
(JPL) facet_when: July 20,
1976 facet_when: 07-20-1976 facet_whe
n_year: 1976 Image
#: MarsSurface original_url: http://g
rin.hq.nasa… UID: SPD-GRIN-GPN-2003-
00 061 Center: JPL Center
Number: MarsSurface GRIN DataBase
Number: GPN-2003-00061 Creator-Photogr
apher: NASA Original
Source: NASA Image
ID: 127274 Resolution
Size: 5 Format: JP2 Media
Type: Image File
Name: GPN-2003-00061.jp2 Width: 2973
Height: 1228 PD
source: http://www.nasaimages.org/downlo
ad.php?mid=nasaNAS~5~5~23140~127274&file
=GPN-2003-00061.jpg&src=http%3A%2F%2Fmm0
4.nasaimages.org%2FMediaManager%2Fsrvr%3
Fmediafile%3D%2FSize3%2FnasaNAS-5-NA%2F2
5256%2FGPN-2003-00061.jpg
[2] Description Mars Viking
11d128.png Original Caption Released
with NASA image: The Viking 1 Lander
sampling arm created a number of deep
trenches as part of the surface
composition and biology experiments on
Mars. The digging tool on the sampling
arm (at lower center) could scoop up
samples of material and deposit them
into the appropriate experiment. Some
holes were dug deeper to study soil
which was not affected by solar
radiation and weathering. The trenches
in this ESE looking image are in the
''Sandy Flats'' area of the landing
site at Chryse Planitia. The boom
holding the meteorology sensors is at
left. More information can be found at
Viking Lander Image 11D128.BLU, Viking
Lander Image 11D128.GRN and Viking
Lander Image 11D128.RED. Date
2009-01-26; original photos were
taken 1977-05-26. Source Own work
based on images in the NASA Viking
image archive Author ''Roel van
der Hoorn (Van der
Hoorn)'' Permission (Reusing this
file) I used the original 11d128.blu,
11d128.grn and 11d128.red images from
the NASA Viking image archive,
converted them to .png, manually
removed the noise and finally merged
them into one image (almost matching
true color; see here for the channel
mixing process). Except for the
conversion, this was all done in Adobe
Photoshop CS2. The original files by
NASA are in the public domain, and so
is this new one. Other versions I
created this image as a replacement for
the image Viking1mars.jpg (see also:
here) It was created by NASA, but the
quality is not very high. Using the
original pictures from the lander
archive resulted in a higher quality
image. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1b/Mars_Viking_11d128.pn
g
[11/30/1976 AD]
determined.
England
[1] Figure 1 from: Sanger, F., Air,
G.M., Barrell, B.G., Brown, N.L.,
Coulson, A.R., Fiddes, J.C., Hutchison
III, C.A., Slocombe, P.M. and Smith,
M., 1977. Nature (London) 265, pp.
687–695. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v265/n5596/abs/265687a0.html {
Sanger_Frederick_19761130.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v265/n5596/abs/265687a0.html
[2] Frederick Sanger Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/chemistry/laureates/1958/sanger.jpg
[1977 AD]
Japan
[1] Fig. 2. The vision-based automated
vehicle during 1970’s (left) and the
image processing: a road scene (right
top) and the guard rail detected in
the field of view (right
bottom). Figure 2 from: Sadayuki
Tsugawa, ''A History of Automated
Highway Systems in Japan and Future
Issues'', Proceedings of the 2008 IEEE
International Conference on Vehicular
Electronics and Safety Columbus, OH,
USA. September 22-24,
2008 http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/s
tamp.jsp?arnumber=04640914 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp
/stamp.jsp?arnumber=04640914
[01/15/1979 AD]
using reflected laser light and holes
burned into metal layer of plastic disk
(the process used to make CDs, DVDs,
Blu-ray disks, etc).
[1] From: Bulthuis, et al, “Ten
billion bits on a disk,” IEEE
Spectrum,vol.26 (Aug.
1979). www.ieee.be/files/1979-August-IE
EE-Spectrum.pdf COPYRIGHTED
source: Bulthuis_IEEE-Spectrum_197908xx.
[2] Figures from: Jan van der Veen et
al, ''Optical recording medium and
method of optically recording
information thereon'', Patent number:
4298975, Filing date: Mar 19, 1979,
Issue date: Nov 3,
1981 http://www.google.com/patents?hl=e
n&lr=&vid=USPAT4298975&id=IRcCAAAAEBAJ&o
i=fnd&dq=laser+recording+philips&printse
c=abstract#v=onepage&q=laser%20recording
%20philips&f=false PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?hl
=en&lr=&vid=USPAT4298975&id=IRcCAAAAEBAJ
&oi=fnd&dq=laser+recording+philips&print
sec=abstract#v=onepage&q=laser%20recordi
ng%20philips&f=false
[09/01/1979 AD]
11", passes and sends close images of
planet Saturn.
[1] Pioneer 10 PD
source: http://quest.nasa.gov/sso/cool/p
ioneer10/graphics/lasher/slide4.jpg
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/image
/spacecraft/pioneer10-11.jpg
[04/30/1982 AD]
many kinds imagable.
Ruschlikon, Zurich, Switzerland
[1] Figures 2 and 3 from: G. Binnig,
H. Rohrer, Ch. Gerber, and E. Weibel,
''Surface Studies by Scanning Tunneling
Microscopy'', Phys. Rev. Lett. 49,
57–61
(1982). http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL
/v49/i1/p57_1 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/
v49/i1/p57_1
[2] Figure 1 from: G. Binnig, H.
Rohrer, Ch. Gerber, and E. Weibel,
''Surface Studies by Scanning Tunneling
Microscopy'', Phys. Rev. Lett. 49,
57–61
(1982). http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL
/v49/i1/p57_1 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/
v49/i1/p57_1
[03/10/1984 AD]
an embryo is split into separate cells,
each nucleus is then put into ova with
nucleus removed from a different animal
and reimplanted to produce genetically
identical animals (sheep).
Cambridge, UK
[1] Figure 3 from: SM Willadsen and RA
Godke, ''A simple procedure for the
production of identical sheep twins'',
Veterinary Record 1984;114:240-243
doi:10.1136/vr.114.10.240
http://veterinaryrecord.bmj.com/conten
t/114/10/240.abstract
{Willadsen_Steen_M_19840310.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: {Willadsen_Steen_M_19840310.pdf}
[08/31/1984 AD]
scale using Scanning Tunneling
Microscope.
Switzerland, presented in) Prague,
Czechoslovakia
[1] Figure 7 from: G. Binnig and H.
Rohrer, ''Scanning Tunnelling
Microscopy'' in Janta, J. Trends In
Physics, 1984 :: Proceedings of the 6th
General Conference of the European
Physical Society : 27-31 August 1984,
Prague, Czechoslovakia. Prague: Union
of Czechoslovak Mathematicians and
Physicists, 1984, p38.
http://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/0
08933716/Home
{Binnig_Rohrer_19840831001.pdf} COPYR
IGHTED
source: {Binnig_Rohrer_19840831001.pdf}
[2] Note these images are from
1990[t] Driscoll, Robert J., Michael
G. Youngquist, and John D.
Baldeschwieler. “Atomic-scale imaging
of DNA using scanning tunnelling
microscopy.” Nature 346.6281 (1990) :
294-296. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v346/n6281/abs/346294a0.html COP
YRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v346/n6281/abs/346294a0.html
[01/24/1986 AD]
Uranus, sends images of Uranus, its
moons, and rings.
Voyager 2 transmits the first close
images of planet Uranus, its moons and
rings.
[1] Description Uranus.jpg English:
NASA photo of Uranus taken by Voyager
2. Caption: This pictures of Uranus was
compiled from images recorded by
Voyager 2 on January 10, 1986, when the
NASA spacecraft was 18 million
kilometers (11 million miles) from the
planet. The images were obtained by
Voyager's narrow-angle camera; the view
is toward the planet's pole of
rotation, which lies just left of
center. The picture has been processed
to show Uranus as human eyes would see
it from the vantage point of the
spacecraft. The dark shading of the
upper right edge of the disk is the
terminator, or day-night boundary. The
blue-green appearance of Uranus results
from methane in the atmosphere; this
gas absorbs red wavelengths from the
incoming sunlight, leaving the
predominant bluish color seen here.
Images shuttered through different
color filters were added and
manipulated by computer, greatly
enhancing the low-contrast details in
the original images. The planet reveals
a dark polar hood surrounded by a
series of progressively lighter
convective bands. The banded structure
is real, though exaggerated here. The
Voyager project is managed for NASA by
the Jet Propulsion Laboratory. Date
January 1986(1986-01) Source
http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/ca
talog/PIA01360 Author NASA PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/bb/Uranus.jpg
[2] Description
Voyager.jpg Voyager 1 / Voyager
2 English: NASA photograph of one of
the two identical Voyager space probes
Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 launched in
1977. The 3.7 metre diameter
high-gain antenna (HGA) is attached to
the hollow ten-sided polygonal body
housing the electronics, here seen in
profile. The Voyager Golden Record is
attached to one of the bus
sides. The angled square panel below
is the optical calibration target and
excess heat radiator. The three
radioisotope thermoelectric generators
(RTGs) are mounted end-to-end on the
left-extending boom. One of the two
planetary radio and plasma wave antenna
extends diagonally left and down, the
other extends to the rear, mostly
hidden here. The compact structure
between the RTGs and the HGA are the
high-field and low-field magnetometers
(MAG) in their stowed state; after
launch an Astromast boom extended to 13
metres to distance the low-field
magnetometers. The instrument boom
extending to the right holds, from left
to right: the cosmic ray subsystem
(CRS) above and Low-Energy Charged
Particle (LECP) detector below; the
Plasma Spectrometer (PLS) above; and
the scan platform that rotates about a
vertical axis. The scan platform
comprises: the Infrared Interferometer
Spectrometer (IRIS) (largest camera at
right); the Ultraviolet Spectrometer
(UVS) to the right of the UVS; the two
Imaging Science Subsystem (ISS) vidicon
cameras to the left of the UVS; and the
Photopolarimeter System (PPS) barely
visible under the ISS. Suggested for
English Wikipedia:alternative text for
images: A space probe with squat
cylindrical body topped by a large
parabolic radio antenna dish pointing
upwards, a three-element radioisotope
thermoelectric generator on a boom
extending left, and scientific
instruments on a boom extending right.
A golden disk is fixed to the
body. Date Source NASA
website http://voyager.jpl.nasa.gov/ima
ge/images/spacecraft/Voyager.jpg Author
NASA Permission (Reusing this
file) PD-NASA PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d2/Voyager.jpg
[12/14/1988 AD]
electromagnetic motor.
Berkeley, California, USA
[1] Figures 1 from: Long-Sheng Fan;
Yu-Chong Tai; R.S. Muller; ,
''IC-processed electrostatic
micro-motors,'' Electron Devices
Meeting, 1988. IEDM '88. Technical
Digest., International , vol., no.,
pp.666-669, 1988 doi:
10.1109/IEDM.1988.32901 URL:
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.j
sp?tp=&arnumber=32901&isnumber=1415 COP
YRIGHTED
source: URL:
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.j
sp?tp=&arnumber=32901&isnumber=1415
[2] Figures 2 from: Long-Sheng Fan;
Yu-Chong Tai; R.S. Muller; ,
''IC-processed electrostatic
micro-motors,'' Electron Devices
Meeting, 1988. IEDM '88. Technical
Digest., International , vol., no.,
pp.666-669, 1988 doi:
10.1109/IEDM.1988.32901 URL:
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.j
sp?tp=&arnumber=32901&isnumber=1415 COP
YRIGHTED
source: URL:
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.j
sp?tp=&arnumber=32901&isnumber=1415
[01/18/1989 AD]
Minnesota, USA
[1] Gil Lee, Patricia G. Arscott,
Victor A. Bloomfield, D. Fennell Evans,
''Scanning Tunneling Microscopy of
Nucleic Acids'', Science, New Series,
Vol. 244, No. 4903 (Apr. 28, 1989), pp.
475-477 Published by: American
Association for the Advancement of
Science Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/1703098 COP
YRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1703
098
[08/25/1989 AD]
"Voyager 2"), and transmits the first
close images of Neptune, its moons and
rings.
[1] A picture of Neptune taken by
Voyager 2, showing off the Great Dark
Spot which has since disappeared from
the planet's surface. Original
Caption Released with Image: During
August 16 and 17, 1989, the Voyager 2
narrow-angle camera was used to
photograph Neptune almost continuously,
recording approximately two and
one-half rotations of the planet. These
images represent the most complete set
of full disk Neptune images that the
spacecraft will acquire. This picture
from the sequence shows two of the four
cloud features which have been tracked
by the Voyager cameras during the past
two months. The large dark oval near
the western limb (the left edge) is at
a latitude of 22 degrees south and
circuits Neptune every 18.3 hours. The
bright clouds immediately to the south
and east of this oval are seen to
substantially change their appearances
in periods as short as four hours. The
second dark spot, at 54 degrees south
latitude near the terminator (lower
right edge), circuits Neptune every
16.1 hours. This image has been
processed to enhance the visibility of
small features, at some sacrifice of
color fidelity. The Voyager Mission is
conducted by JPL for NASA's Office of
Space Science and
Applications. Source:
http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/catalog
/PIA00046 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/06/Neptune.jpg
[2] Description
Voyager.jpg Voyager 1 / Voyager
2 English: NASA photograph of one of
the two identical Voyager space probes
Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 launched in
1977. The 3.7 metre diameter
high-gain antenna (HGA) is attached to
the hollow ten-sided polygonal body
housing the electronics, here seen in
profile. The Voyager Golden Record is
attached to one of the bus
sides. The angled square panel below
is the optical calibration target and
excess heat radiator. The three
radioisotope thermoelectric generators
(RTGs) are mounted end-to-end on the
left-extending boom. One of the two
planetary radio and plasma wave antenna
extends diagonally left and down, the
other extends to the rear, mostly
hidden here. The compact structure
between the RTGs and the HGA are the
high-field and low-field magnetometers
(MAG) in their stowed state; after
launch an Astromast boom extended to 13
metres to distance the low-field
magnetometers. The instrument boom
extending to the right holds, from left
to right: the cosmic ray subsystem
(CRS) above and Low-Energy Charged
Particle (LECP) detector below; the
Plasma Spectrometer (PLS) above; and
the scan platform that rotates about a
vertical axis. The scan platform
comprises: the Infrared Interferometer
Spectrometer (IRIS) (largest camera at
right); the Ultraviolet Spectrometer
(UVS) to the right of the UVS; the two
Imaging Science Subsystem (ISS) vidicon
cameras to the left of the UVS; and the
Photopolarimeter System (PPS) barely
visible under the ISS. Suggested for
English Wikipedia:alternative text for
images: A space probe with squat
cylindrical body topped by a large
parabolic radio antenna dish pointing
upwards, a three-element radioisotope
thermoelectric generator on a boom
extending left, and scientific
instruments on a boom extending right.
A golden disk is fixed to the
body. Date Source NASA
website http://voyager.jpl.nasa.gov/ima
ge/images/spacecraft/Voyager.jpg Author
NASA Permission (Reusing this
file) PD-NASA PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d2/Voyager.jpg
[01/17/1990 AD]
was patented by Binnig and Rohrer in
1980. In 1982 Binnig and team publish
the first images of individual atoms.
In this report Eigler and Schweizer use
an STM at low temperatures to move
individual atoms. The letters "IBM" are
formed. Eigler and Schweizer publish
this in a 1990 letter in "Nature"
titled "Positioning single atoms with a
scanning tunnelling microscope". As an
abstract they write:
"SINCE its invention in
the early 1980s by Binnig and
Rohrer1,2, the scanning tunnelling
microscope (STM) has provided images of
surfaces and adsorbed atoms and
molecules with unprecedented
resolution. The STM has also been used
to modify surfaces, for example by
locally pinning molecules to a surface3
and by transfer of an atom from the STM
tip to the surface4. Here we report the
use of the STM at low temperatures (4
K) to position individual xenon atoms
on a single-crystal nickel surface with
atomic pre-cision. This capacity has
allowed us to fabricate rudimentary
structures of our own design, atom by
atom. The processes we describe are in
principle applicable to molecules also.
In view of the device-like
characteristics reported for single
atoms on surfaces5,6, the possibilities
for perhaps the ultimate in device
miniaturization are evident.".
Research Center) San Jose, California,
USA
[1] Figures 1 and 2 from: D. M. Eigler
& E. K. Schweizer, ''Positioning single
atoms with a scanning tunnelling
microscope'', Nature 344, 524 - 526 (05
April 1990);
doi:10.1038/344524a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v344/n6266/abs/344524
a0.html COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v344/n6266/abs/344524a0.html
[2] Figure 3 from: D. M. Eigler & E.
K. Schweizer, ''Positioning single
atoms with a scanning tunnelling
microscope'', Nature 344, 524 - 526 (05
April 1990);
doi:10.1038/344524a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v344/n6266/abs/344524
a0.html COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v344/n6266/abs/344524a0.html
[12/20/1990 AD]
signals.
Ulm) Ulm, Germany
[1] Figure 5 from: P Fromherz, A
Offenhausser, T Vetter, and J Weis, ''A
neuron-silicon junction: a Retzius cell
of the leech on an insulated-gate
field-effect transistor'', Science 31
May 1991: 252 (5010),
1290-1293. http://www.sciencemag.org/co
ntent/252/5010/1290.short
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/2875962
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2875
962
[2] Figure 5 from: P Fromherz, A
Offenhausser, T Vetter, and J Weis, ''A
neuron-silicon junction: a Retzius cell
of the leech on an insulated-gate
field-effect transistor'', Science 31
May 1991: 252 (5010),
1290-1293. http://www.sciencemag.org/co
ntent/252/5010/1290.short
AND http://www.jstor.org/stable/2875962
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2875
962
[10/29/1991 AD]
asteroid (Gaspra), and captures image
of a moon of an asteroid (Ida).
occur later)
[1] The Asteroid 243 Ida and Its Moon
Dactyl This color picture is made
from images taken from the Galileo
spacecraft about 14 minutes before its
closest approach to asteroid 243 Ida on
August 28, 1993. The range from the
spacecraft was about 10,500 kilometers
(6,500 miles). The images used are from
the sequence in which Ida's moon was
originally discovered; the tiny moon is
visible to the right of the asteroid.
The color is ''enhanced'' in the sense
that the CCD camera is sensitive to
near infrared wavelengths of light
beyond human vision; a ''natural''
color picture of this asteroid would
appear mostly gray. PD
source: http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/gali
leo/gallery/images/top10-03.jpg
[2] Drifting Galileo Date: 18 Oct
1989 Galileo spacecraft atop the
inertial upper stage drifts into the
blackness of space after deployment
from the Space Shuttle Atlantis payload
bay during mission STS-34 in October
1989. Image Credit: NASA Credit:
NASA PD
source: http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/mult
imedia/gallery/STS34_10063774-browse.jpg
[12/07/1995 AD]
[1] Drifting Galileo Date: 18 Oct
1989 Galileo spacecraft atop the
inertial upper stage drifts into the
blackness of space after deployment
from the Space Shuttle Atlantis payload
bay during mission STS-34 in October
1989. Image Credit: NASA Credit:
NASA PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/ea/Galileo_encounter_wit
h_Io.gif
[2] The Asteroid 243 Ida and Its Moon
Dactyl This color picture is made
from images taken from the Galileo
spacecraft about 14 minutes before its
closest approach to asteroid 243 Ida on
August 28, 1993. The range from the
spacecraft was about 10,500 kilometers
(6,500 miles). The images used are from
the sequence in which Ida's moon was
originally discovered; the tiny moon is
visible to the right of the asteroid.
The color is ''enhanced'' in the sense
that the CCD camera is sensitive to
near infrared wavelengths of light
beyond human vision; a ''natural''
color picture of this asteroid would
appear mostly gray. PD
source: http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/mult
imedia/gallery/STS34_10063774-browse.jpg
[11/25/1996 AD]
cell. The nucleus of a sheep ovum is
replaced with a mammary cell from an
adult sheep and reimplanted to develop
into an identical sheep as the mammary
cell donor.
[1] Description English: Modified
version of Commons
image en:Category:Animal
testing Date 2008-02-22 (original
upload date) (Original text : 22 Feb
08) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia (Original text :
Image:Dollyscotland.JPG) Author Origina
l uploader was TimVickers at
en.wikipedia (Original text :
User:Llull on English
Wikipedia) Permission (Reusing this
file) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Dollyscotland_%
28crop%29.jpg/1280px-Dollyscotland_%28cr
op%29.jpg
[2] Description English: This is
diagram of how Dolly the sheep was
made. Date 12 April 2008 (original
upload date) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia; transferred to Commons by
User:Sreejithk2000 using
CommonsHelper. (Original text :
self-made) Author Squidonius (talk).
Original uploader was Squidonius at
en.wikipedia PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Dolly_clone.svg
/1000px-Dolly_clone.svg.png
[06/28/2001 AD]
Measuring 400x400 µm, these are the
smallest known radio frequency
identification tags on Earth.
In 2003, Hitachi reduces the size to
50µm by 50µm (0.002x0.002in), which
to the naked eye look like dots of
powder.
[1] Hitachi Develops a New RFID with
Embedded Antenna µ-Chip --Makes
Possible Wireless Links that Work Using
Nothing More Than a 0.4mm X 0.4mm Chip,
One of the World's Smallest ICs-- A
New RFID with Embedded Antenna
MU-Chip Tokyo, September 2,
2003-Hitachi, Ltd. (TSE: 6501) today
announced that it has developed a new
version of its RFID µ-Chip embedding
an antenna. When using Hitachi's
original µ-Chip, one of the world's
smallest RFID ICs measuring only 0.4mm
X 0.4mm, an external antenna must be
attached to the chip to allow external
devices to read the 128-bit ID number
stored in its ROM (Read-Only-Memory).
This newly developed version, however,
features an internal antenna, enabling
chips to employ the energy of incoming
electrical waves to wirelessly transmit
its ID number to a reader. The 0.4mm X
0.4mm chip can thus operate entirely on
its own, making it possible to use
µ-Chip as RFID IC tags without the
need to attach external devices. This
breakthrough opens the door to using
µ-Chips as RFID IC tags in extremely
minute and precise applications that
had been impractical until now. For
example, the new µ-Chip can be easily
embedded in bank notes, gift
certificates, documents and whole paper
media etc. The µ-Chip, announced by
Hitachi in July 2001, is one of the
world's smallest IC chips at 0.4mm X
0.4mm. The chip data is recorded in
read-only memory during the
semiconductor production process, and
therefore cannot be rewritten, thus
guaranteeing its authenticity.
Applications of the µ-Chip include a
system for managing the SCM materials
on sites, and entrance tickets for Expo
2005 Aichi Japan which opens on March
25, 2005. The primary features of
this revolutionary µ-Chip are as
follows. (1) A RFID IC chip measuring
only 0.4mm X 0.4mm with built-in
antenna Despite its extremely small
size, this µ-Chip has a built-in
antenna to permit contactless
communications (at very close
proximity) with other devices without
using an external antenna. (2) No need
for special manufacturing
equipment The antenna is formed using
bump-metalization technology (used to
create the electrical contacts of an
IC), a process already widely used by
semiconductor manufacturers, thus
eliminating any need for specialized
equipment. (3) Complete compatibility
with conventional µ-Chip With ID
numbers and support systems that are
fully compatible with those of existing
µ-Chip, the new chip is fully
compatible with all systems that use
current µ-Chip technology. Hitachi
plans to develop numerous markets for
this chip that take full advantage of
its outstanding features. Embedding the
chip in securities, identification and
other valuable documents such as
vouchers offers a highly sophisticated
means of preventing counterfeiting.
Another high-potential application is
agricultural products, where the chips
can help ensure the safety of food by
providing traceability of ingredients.
Additionally, the chips can be embedded
in business forms to automate logistics
systems and many other business
processes. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.hitachi.com/New/cnews
/030902_030902.jpg
[2] The world's smallest radio
frequency identification tags have been
unveiled by Japanese electronics firm
Hitachi. The minute devices measure
just 0.05mm by 0.05mm (0.002x0.002in)
and to the naked eye look like spots of
powder. Here the tiny tags can be
seen next to a human hair UNKNOWN
source: http://newsimg.bbc.co.uk/media/i
mages/42606000/jpg/_42606003_tag_203.jpg
[02/16/2002 AD]
inside a human body.
[1] Plate 1 figures A-C Farra, Robert
et al. “First-in-Human Testing of a
Wirelessly Controlled Drug Delivery
Microchip.” Science Translational
Medicine (2012): n.
pag. http://stm.sciencemag.org/content/
early/2012/02/15/scitranslmed.3003276 C
OPYRIGHTED
source: Farra, Robert et al.
“First-in-Human Testing of a
Wirelessly Controlled Drug Delivery
Microchip.” Science Translational
Medicine (2012): n.
pag. http://stm.sciencemag.org/content/
early/2012/02/15/scitranslmed.3003276
[2] Plate 4 figures A-H Farra, Robert
et al. “First-in-Human Testing of a
Wirelessly Controlled Drug Delivery
Microchip.” Science Translational
Medicine (2012): n.
pag. http://stm.sciencemag.org/content/
early/2012/02/15/scitranslmed.3003276 C
OPYRIGHTED
source:
[04/04/2003 AD]
Berkeley, California, USA
[1] Credit: Zettl Research Group LBNL,
University of California,
Berkley Electric Drives - Special
Purpose Motors (Description and
Applications) Motor
Construction Special purpose designs
have been developed to solve a wide
range of drive problems. Some common
examples are included here.
Integrated Starter Generator
(ISG) The electronically controlled
integrated starter generator used in
mild hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs)
combines the automotive starter and
alternator into a single machine. The
conventional starter is a low speed,
high current DC machine, while the
alternator is a variable speed 3 phase
AC machine. The ISG has four
important functions in a hybrid vehicle
application It enables the
''start-stop'' function, turning off
the engine when the vehicle is
stationary saving fuel. It
generates the electrical energy to
power all the electrical ancillaries.
It provides a power boost to assist
the engine when required, permitting
smaller engines for similar
performance. In some
configurations it recuperates energy
from regenerative braking. In a
typical implementation (below), the ISG
is a short axis, large diameter
''pancake'' shaped switched reluctance
machine mounted directly on the end of
the engine crankshaft between the
engine and the clutch in the gearbox
bell housing. Image source Long,
Schofield, Howe, Piron &
McClelland ''Design of a Switched
Reluctance Machine for Extended Speed
Operation'' IMEDC June 2003 The ISG
is a bi-directional energy converter
acting as a motor when powered by the
battery or a generator when driven by
the engine. The system voltage in a
mild HEV is 42 Volts which means that,
for the same cranking power as a 12
Volt machine, the starter current can
be reduced. Typical power throughput is
between 5kW and 15 kW with a possible
peak power of 70 kW for cold
cranking.. The brushless ISG design
eliminates one rotating machine
completely as well as the associated
commutator and brushes from the DC
machine and the sliprings and brushes
from the AC machine. The starter
solenoid, the Bendix ring (starter
gear) and the pulley or gear drive to
the alternator are also no longer
needed and because of the higher system
voltage, the diameter and weight of the
copper cabling is also reduced
substantially. The savings however
come at a cost. The system must be
integrated with several subsystems as
follows An AC/DC converter to
rectify the generator output voltage.
A DC/DC converter to supply the
vehicle's electrical power system
voltages. Power electronics and
software to control the ISG current,
voltage, speed, torque and temperature
as appropriate. An overall energy
management system integrated with the
vehicle's engine, battery and
brakes. Larger versions of this
construction are also used in full
hybrid electric vehicles. The
switched reluctance machine with its
simple rotor of inert iron is very
robust, able to operate at high speed
and to withstand the harsh operating
conditions in the engine
compartment. History
Outer Rotor Motors There are many
designs using this construction, mostly
for small sizes. Two examples of low
power motors are shown below. High
power versions are used for ''in
wheel'' automotive applications.
Inside Out Motor These are
permanent magnet motors with the moving
magnets arranged around the periphery
of a multi pole fixed stator carrying
the field windings.
Used for automotive drive
systems including in-wheel motors. Low
power versions used in small cooling
fans and direct drive record player
turntables. Toroidal Coil
Motor This is an ''inside out''
brushless permanent magnet motor with a
toroidal wound stator covered by a cup
shaped permanent magnet outer
rotor. Because
of the low inertia and friction free
rotor, the toroidal motor is capable of
speeds up to 25,000 RPM. Suitable for
low power applications it is used for
example to drive the polygonal rotating
mirrors which are mounted directly on
the rotor in laser printers.
Linear Motors In most cases the
linear motor can be considered as a
conventional rotary motor with both the
stator and the rotor split and rolled
out flat. The same electromagnetic
forces apply and these have been
employed in similar classes of AC and
DC machines. Except for traction motors
the travel of the motor armature is
usually quite short. Linear
Stepping Motors The most common
application is the stepping motor.
Stator poles are laid out along the
track and excited by windings fed from
a pulsed DC source. Permanent magnets
forming the armature are held in the
carriage. The carriage moves along the
track in response to pulses sent to the
the stator windings in much the same
way as the rotor turns in a brushless
DC motor. Closed loop control is
possible by mounting a position sensor
on the carriage. Despite the
elegance of the linear motor, linear
motion is more often provided by the
less expensive and more mundane method
of using a rotary stepping motor
driving a lead screw. Maglev
Traction Motors The principle of
the linear induction motor is used to
propel high speed Maglev (Magnetic
Levitation) trains which float on a
magnetic field created by
electromagnets in the trackbed under
the train . A separate set of trackside
guidance magnets is used to control the
lateral position of the train relative
to the track. Thus the maglev train
uses electromagnetic forces for three
different tasks, to suspend, to guide
and to propel the train. Maglev
trains have been developed in several
countries of the world using a variety
of configurations. Examples of the
essential features are described
below. Propulsion
The train has no onboard motor.
Electromagnets in the trackbed are
excited in sequence creating a linear
rather than a rotating field. By
transformer action, the trackbed coils
induce currents in coils on board the
train which are used to energise
powerful electromagnets. The Lorentz
force between the trackbed currents and
the the onboard electromagnets causes
the magnets to be propelled along by
the moving field. The
principles involved are very similar to
those of the induction motor but with
the static and moving parts
interchanged. See diagram below.
For illustrative
purposes the track can be likened to a
ladder formed by the unrolled squirrel
cage rotor of the induction motor. In
this case however it is fixed and it
supplies the moving field. Currents are
induced in the train's electromagnets
which are equivalent to the stator
poles of the induction motor but in
this case the magnets are free to move.
In practical designs the trackbed
currents are actually provided in a
series of individual coils laid along
the track. Levitation
Various levitation schemes are used.
The force holding the train aloft can
be created by the magnetic repulsion
between the same electromagnets on the
track and the onboard electromagnets in
the train which are used for
propulsion. The train's levitating
magnets are powered by direct current
supplied by a battery which is kept
charged by an induction generator
taking its power from the currents
induced by the trackbed coils in the
onboard generator coils. In
the diagram above, when the magnet is
directly above the current carrying
conductor as shown, the magnetic forces
(north and south poles) from the two
adjacent current loops cancel out and
there is no lift. If however the magnet
is moving very quickly over the coils,
it will reach a position over like,
repulsive, poles (north poles in the
diagram) which are displaced from the
attractive south poles so that the net
effect is a force repelling the magnet
away from the track. This is only
possible because the current in the
trackbed magnets lags the voltage due
to the inductance of the windings,
creating a delay in the build up of the
balanced field by which time the magnet
has moved into the adjacent region
where there is a net repulsive force.
This effect only happens when the
magnet on the train is moving at high
speed across the trackbed magnets. Thus
the train needs to be in motion for
this system to work and the train needs
wheels for support as it accelerates
from rest and when it is slowing to a
halt. Alternatively
levitation can be provided by separate
windings. The train's levitation
magnets protrude from the side of the
train and run between pairs of
vertically separated electromagnets in
guideways at each side of the train,
rather than in the trackbed. This
arrangement creates an attractive force
above the train's magnets combined with
a repulsive force beneath the train's
magnets to provide the levitating
force. Guidance For
guidance the train uses magnetic fields
provided by a separate set of weaker
magnets along each side of the train.
Similar in principle to the levitation
magnets they are used to control the
lateral position of the train relative
to the track.
Excitation of the trackside magnets is
arranged such that only the section
under the train is active. As the train
moves along the track between sections
the current to the previous section is
switched off and the current to the
next section is switched on pulling the
train along. This serves the dual
purpose of avoiding losses by
energising only the section of track
directly under the train and at the
same time, since the power to the rest
of the track is switched off, it
provides security against electric
shock to anybody near to the track and
avoids the possibility of accidentally
short circuiting the system by dropping
rubbish onto live conductors.
Very high armature currents of
thousands of amps or more are involved
and some designs use high temperature
superconductors ( HTS ) in the onboard
magnets, cooled with liquid nitrogen or
helium to minimise the resistive
losses. As might be expected some
sophisticated control systems are
needed to keep everything on track.
History Axial Field
Motors Axial field motors have been
developed for applications which
require short, flat, ''pancake''
construction. Printed Circuit
(PCB) or ''Pancake'' Motor The
printed circuit motor is an example of
an ironless or coreless motor with
several unique features. The pancake
construction uses an axial magnetic
field to achieve the short flat
construction. Radial field PCB motors
are also possible.
Construction The rotor windings
are printed, stamped or welded onto a
thin, disc shaped glass fibre circuit
board which rotates in the air gap
between pairs of permanent magnets
arranged around the periphery of the
disk. The windings fan out in a series
of radial loops around the surface of
the disk. The magnets are arranged
alternatively north and south so that
the magnetic fields in the air gaps of
adjacent magnet pairs are in opposite
directions. The magnets are held in
place by two iron end caps in a compact
''pancake'' shaped block to complete
the magnetic circuit. Current is fed to
the rotor windings via brushes through
precious metal commutator segments
printed on the disc. Operating
Principle Traditional electric
motors have a radial magnetic field or
flux with the rotor current flowing
axially along the length of the rotor.
In typical printed circuit motors the
construction is reversed. The magnetic
field is axial (oriented along the axis
of the machine) and the current flows
radially from the axis to the edge of
the disc and back again. A tangential
force on the disk is created by the
current passing through the magnetic
fields in the air gaps between the pole
pairs of the permanent magnets. So that
the return current does not cancel out
the effect of the outgoing current, the
return wire is physically separated or
displaced to one side from the outgoing
wire by the width of the magnet. In
this way it interacts with the magnetic
field of the adjacent magnet which is
in the opposite direction and thus
reinforces the tangential force on the
disk. In many ways it is similar
to Faraday's 1831disk or homopolar
motor which used a single magnet and
was driven by a unidirectional current
fed by brushes at the centre and on the
periphery of the disk.
Applications The printed circuit
motor is a very compact and light
weight design making it useful in
confined spaces. Since the rotor does
not have drag a lump of iron around, it
has very low inertia and can run up to
speed very quickly. Because of the many
commutator segments and the low current
capability of the windings, the PCB
motor is only suitable for low power
applications and is not suitable for
continuous operation. It is however
ideal for servo systems and industrial
controls and automotive applications
such as electric window winders.
Micro-motors
(Micro-ElectroMechanical Systems -
MEMS) Electrostatic Motor
The motor shown below is an example of
semiconductor manufacturing technology
used to fabricate very small mechanical
components. It measures 100 microns
across, or about the width of a human
hair. Similar in principle to a
reluctance motor, it depends on
electrostatic attraction, rather than
magnetic attraction, between the stator
and rotor poles. Because the dimensions
are so tiny, very high electric fields
can be built up with only a few volts
between the motor poles.
Fan Long-Shen, Tai Yu-Chong
and Richard S. Muller 1989
IC-processed electrostatic
micromotors Sensors Actuators 20
41-7 Fan L-S, Tai Y-C and R S
Muller 1988 Integrated moveable
micromechanical structures for sensors
and actuators IEEE Trans. Electron
Devices The motor is
not assembled from individual
components. Instead the components are
built up on a semiconductor substrate
by masking and etching and a mask-less
post-processing release step is
performed to etch away sacrificial
layers, allowing the structural layers
to move and rotate.
Micromachined micromotors can be
monolithically integrated together with
the necessary CMOS drive circuits,
containing oscillators, frequency
dividers and counters, and transistors
for the drive circuit all on one
silicon chip. Common uses
include defense/munitions applications,
computer hard drives, optics, sensors
and actuators.
History Nano-motors
(Nano-ElectroMechanical Systems -
NEMS) Electrostatic Motor
Even smaller motors have been made
using nanotechnology. An example is
shown below. It consists of a tiny gold
slab rotor, about 100 nm square,
mounted on concentric carbon nanotubes.
The outer tube carries the rotor,
driven by electrostatic electrodes,
rotating around an inner tube which
acts as a supporting shaft. By applying
voltage pulses of up to 5 Volts between
the rotor plate and stators, the
position, speed and direction of
rotation of the rotor can be
controlled. It measures about 500
nanometers across, 300 times smaller
than the diameter of a human hair.
UNKNOWN
source: http://www.mpoweruk.com/images/n
ems.gif
[2] Credit: Zettl Research
Group LBNL, University of California,
Berkley Electric Drives - Special
Purpose Motors (Description and
Applications) Motor
Construction Special purpose designs
have been developed to solve a wide
range of drive problems. Some common
examples are included here.
Integrated Starter Generator
(ISG) The electronically controlled
integrated starter generator used in
mild hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs)
combines the automotive starter and
alternator into a single machine. The
conventional starter is a low speed,
high current DC machine, while the
alternator is a variable speed 3 phase
AC machine. The ISG has four
important functions in a hybrid vehicle
application It enables the
''start-stop'' function, turning off
the engine when the vehicle is
stationary saving fuel. It
generates the electrical energy to
power all the electrical ancillaries.
It provides a power boost to assist
the engine when required, permitting
smaller engines for similar
performance. In some
configurations it recuperates energy
from regenerative braking. In a
typical implementation (below), the ISG
is a short axis, large diameter
''pancake'' shaped switched reluctance
machine mounted directly on the end of
the engine crankshaft between the
engine and the clutch in the gearbox
bell housing. Image source Long,
Schofield, Howe, Piron &
McClelland ''Design of a Switched
Reluctance Machine for Extended Speed
Operation'' IMEDC June 2003 The ISG
is a bi-directional energy converter
acting as a motor when powered by the
battery or a generator when driven by
the engine. The system voltage in a
mild HEV is 42 Volts which means that,
for the same cranking power as a 12
Volt machine, the starter current can
be reduced. Typical power throughput is
between 5kW and 15 kW with a possible
peak power of 70 kW for cold
cranking.. The brushless ISG design
eliminates one rotating machine
completely as well as the associated
commutator and brushes from the DC
machine and the sliprings and brushes
from the AC machine. The starter
solenoid, the Bendix ring (starter
gear) and the pulley or gear drive to
the alternator are also no longer
needed and because of the higher system
voltage, the diameter and weight of the
copper cabling is also reduced
substantially. The savings however
come at a cost. The system must be
integrated with several subsystems as
follows An AC/DC converter to
rectify the generator output voltage.
A DC/DC converter to supply the
vehicle's electrical power system
voltages. Power electronics and
software to control the ISG current,
voltage, speed, torque and temperature
as appropriate. An overall energy
management system integrated with the
vehicle's engine, battery and
brakes. Larger versions of this
construction are also used in full
hybrid electric vehicles. The
switched reluctance machine with its
simple rotor of inert iron is very
robust, able to operate at high speed
and to withstand the harsh operating
conditions in the engine
compartment. History
Outer Rotor Motors There are many
designs using this construction, mostly
for small sizes. Two examples of low
power motors are shown below. High
power versions are used for ''in
wheel'' automotive applications.
Inside Out Motor These are
permanent magnet motors with the moving
magnets arranged around the periphery
of a multi pole fixed stator carrying
the field windings.
Used for automotive drive
systems including in-wheel motors. Low
power versions used in small cooling
fans and direct drive record player
turntables. Toroidal Coil
Motor This is an ''inside out''
brushless permanent magnet motor with a
toroidal wound stator covered by a cup
shaped permanent magnet outer
rotor. Because
of the low inertia and friction free
rotor, the toroidal motor is capable of
speeds up to 25,000 RPM. Suitable for
low power applications it is used for
example to drive the polygonal rotating
mirrors which are mounted directly on
the rotor in laser printers.
Linear Motors In most cases the
linear motor can be considered as a
conventional rotary motor with both the
stator and the rotor split and rolled
out flat. The same electromagnetic
forces apply and these have been
employed in similar classes of AC and
DC machines. Except for traction motors
the travel of the motor armature is
usually quite short. Linear
Stepping Motors The most common
application is the stepping motor.
Stator poles are laid out along the
track and excited by windings fed from
a pulsed DC source. Permanent magnets
forming the armature are held in the
carriage. The carriage moves along the
track in response to pulses sent to the
the stator windings in much the same
way as the rotor turns in a brushless
DC motor. Closed loop control is
possible by mounting a position sensor
on the carriage. Despite the
elegance of the linear motor, linear
motion is more often provided by the
less expensive and more mundane method
of using a rotary stepping motor
driving a lead screw. Maglev
Traction Motors The principle of
the linear induction motor is used to
propel high speed Maglev (Magnetic
Levitation) trains which float on a
magnetic field created by
electromagnets in the trackbed under
the train . A separate set of trackside
guidance magnets is used to control the
lateral position of the train relative
to the track. Thus the maglev train
uses electromagnetic forces for three
different tasks, to suspend, to guide
and to propel the train. Maglev
trains have been developed in several
countries of the world using a variety
of configurations. Examples of the
essential features are described
below. Propulsion
The train has no onboard motor.
Electromagnets in the trackbed are
excited in sequence creating a linear
rather than a rotating field. By
transformer action, the trackbed coils
induce currents in coils on board the
train which are used to energise
powerful electromagnets. The Lorentz
force between the trackbed currents and
the the onboard electromagnets causes
the magnets to be propelled along by
the moving field. The
principles involved are very similar to
those of the induction motor but with
the static and moving parts
interchanged. See diagram below.
For illustrative
purposes the track can be likened to a
ladder formed by the unrolled squirrel
cage rotor of the induction motor. In
this case however it is fixed and it
supplies the moving field. Currents are
induced in the train's electromagnets
which are equivalent to the stator
poles of the induction motor but in
this case the magnets are free to move.
In practical designs the trackbed
currents are actually provided in a
series of individual coils laid along
the track. Levitation
Various levitation schemes are used.
The force holding the train aloft can
be created by the magnetic repulsion
between the same electromagnets on the
track and the onboard electromagnets in
the train which are used for
propulsion. The train's levitating
magnets are powered by direct current
supplied by a battery which is kept
charged by an induction generator
taking its power from the currents
induced by the trackbed coils in the
onboard generator coils. In
the diagram above, when the magnet is
directly above the current carrying
conductor as shown, the magnetic forces
(north and south poles) from the two
adjacent current loops cancel out and
there is no lift. If however the magnet
is moving very quickly over the coils,
it will reach a position over like,
repulsive, poles (north poles in the
diagram) which are displaced from the
attractive south poles so that the net
effect is a force repelling the magnet
away from the track. This is only
possible because the current in the
trackbed magnets lags the voltage due
to the inductance of the windings,
creating a delay in the build up of the
balanced field by which time the magnet
has moved into the adjacent region
where there is a net repulsive force.
This effect only happens when the
magnet on the train is moving at high
speed across the trackbed magnets. Thus
the train needs to be in motion for
this system to work and the train needs
wheels for support as it accelerates
from rest and when it is slowing to a
halt. Alternatively
levitation can be provided by separate
windings. The train's levitation
magnets protrude from the side of the
train and run between pairs of
vertically separated electromagnets in
guideways at each side of the train,
rather than in the trackbed. This
arrangement creates an attractive force
above the train's magnets combined with
a repulsive force beneath the train's
magnets to provide the levitating
force. Guidance For
guidance the train uses magnetic fields
provided by a separate set of weaker
magnets along each side of the train.
Similar in principle to the levitation
magnets they are used to control the
lateral position of the train relative
to the track.
Excitation of the trackside magnets is
arranged such that only the section
under the train is active. As the train
moves along the track between sections
the current to the previous section is
switched off and the current to the
next section is switched on pulling the
train along. This serves the dual
purpose of avoiding losses by
energising only the section of track
directly under the train and at the
same time, since the power to the rest
of the track is switched off, it
provides security against electric
shock to anybody near to the track and
avoids the possibility of accidentally
short circuiting the system by dropping
rubbish onto live conductors.
Very high armature currents of
thousands of amps or more are involved
and some designs use high temperature
superconductors ( HTS ) in the onboard
magnets, cooled with liquid nitrogen or
helium to minimise the resistive
losses. As might be expected some
sophisticated control systems are
needed to keep everything on track.
History Axial Field
Motors Axial field motors have been
developed for applications which
require short, flat, ''pancake''
construction. Printed Circuit
(PCB) or ''Pancake'' Motor The
printed circuit motor is an example of
an ironless or coreless motor with
several unique features. The pancake
construction uses an axial magnetic
field to achieve the short flat
construction. Radial field PCB motors
are also possible.
Construction The rotor windings
are printed, stamped or welded onto a
thin, disc shaped glass fibre circuit
board which rotates in the air gap
between pairs of permanent magnets
arranged around the periphery of the
disk. The windings fan out in a series
of radial loops around the surface of
the disk. The magnets are arranged
alternatively north and south so that
the magnetic fields in the air gaps of
adjacent magnet pairs are in opposite
directions. The magnets are held in
place by two iron end caps in a compact
''pancake'' shaped block to complete
the magnetic circuit. Current is fed to
the rotor windings via brushes through
precious metal commutator segments
printed on the disc. Operating
Principle Traditional electric
motors have a radial magnetic field or
flux with the rotor current flowing
axially along the length of the rotor.
In typical printed circuit motors the
construction is reversed. The magnetic
field is axial (oriented along the axis
of the machine) and the current flows
radially from the axis to the edge of
the disc and back again. A tangential
force on the disk is created by the
current passing through the magnetic
fields in the air gaps between the pole
pairs of the permanent magnets. So that
the return current does not cancel out
the effect of the outgoing current, the
return wire is physically separated or
displaced to one side from the outgoing
wire by the width of the magnet. In
this way it interacts with the magnetic
field of the adjacent magnet which is
in the opposite direction and thus
reinforces the tangential force on the
disk. In many ways it is similar
to Faraday's 1831disk or homopolar
motor which used a single magnet and
was driven by a unidirectional current
fed by brushes at the centre and on the
periphery of the disk.
Applications The printed circuit
motor is a very compact and light
weight design making it useful in
confined spaces. Since the rotor does
not have drag a lump of iron around, it
has very low inertia and can run up to
speed very quickly. Because of the many
commutator segments and the low current
capability of the windings, the PCB
motor is only suitable for low power
applications and is not suitable for
continuous operation. It is however
ideal for servo systems and industrial
controls and automotive applications
such as electric window winders.
Micro-motors
(Micro-ElectroMechanical Systems -
MEMS) Electrostatic Motor
The motor shown below is an example of
semiconductor manufacturing technology
used to fabricate very small mechanical
components. It measures 100 microns
across, or about the width of a human
hair. Similar in principle to a
reluctance motor, it depends on
electrostatic attraction, rather than
magnetic attraction, between the stator
and rotor poles. Because the dimensions
are so tiny, very high electric fields
can be built up with only a few volts
between the motor poles.
Fan Long-Shen, Tai Yu-Chong
and Richard S. Muller 1989
IC-processed electrostatic
micromotors Sensors Actuators 20
41-7 Fan L-S, Tai Y-C and R S
Muller 1988 Integrated moveable
micromechanical structures for sensors
and actuators IEEE Trans. Electron
Devices The motor is
not assembled from individual
components. Instead the components are
built up on a semiconductor substrate
by masking and etching and a mask-less
post-processing release step is
performed to etch away sacrificial
layers, allowing the structural layers
to move and rotate.
Micromachined micromotors can be
monolithically integrated together with
the necessary CMOS drive circuits,
containing oscillators, frequency
dividers and counters, and transistors
for the drive circuit all on one
silicon chip. Common uses
include defense/munitions applications,
computer hard drives, optics, sensors
and actuators.
History Nano-motors
(Nano-ElectroMechanical Systems -
NEMS) Electrostatic Motor
Even smaller motors have been made
using nanotechnology. An example is
shown below. It consists of a tiny gold
slab rotor, about 100 nm square,
mounted on concentric carbon nanotubes.
The outer tube carries the rotor,
driven by electrostatic electrodes,
rotating around an inner tube which
acts as a supporting shaft. By applying
voltage pulses of up to 5 Volts between
the rotor plate and stators, the
position, speed and direction of
rotation of the rotor can be
controlled. It measures about 500
nanometers across, 300 times smaller
than the diameter of a human hair.
UNKNOWN
source: http://www.mpoweruk.com/images/n
ems.gif
[06/17/2004 AD]
(optoelectronic fibres).
Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
[1] a, SEM micrograph of the
cross-section of the hybrid fibre with
800-microm hollow core, omnidirectional
mirror layers, metallic filament array
and polymer cladding. The inset shows
eight pairs of quarter-wave As2Se3/PEI
multilayers and one of the metallic, Sn
filaments in the ring that is
surrounding the mirror layers. b,
Photograph of a 1-mm-thick, 1-m-long
hybrid fibre. The fibre appears green
to the eye by virtue of reflection from
the third-order photonic band gap of
the omnidirectional mirror, located at
550 nm. c, Normalized transmission
spectra of three different fibres,
having outer diameters of 980, 1,030
and 1,090 microm. The primary and
second-order photonic bandgaps are
located at 1.62 and 0.8 microm for the
980-microm-thick fibre, and are shifted
to longer wavelengths as the fibre
diameter increases. d, Measured
electrical current along the
980-microm-thick, 15-cm-long fibre as a
function of applied bias
voltage. Figure from: Bayindir,
Mehmet et al.
“Metal-insulator-semiconductor
optoelectronic fibres.” Nature
431.7010 (2004) :
826-829. http://www.nature.com/nature/j
ournal/v431/n7010/full/nature02937.html
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v431/n7010/images/nature02937-f1.2.
jpg
[2] Researchers display the new light
sensitive fabric they have created,
fibers of which are in front of Yoel
Fink's face in frame. From left to
right are physics professor John
Joannopoulos, material science
professor Yoel Fink, post-doc Mehmet
Bayindir, graduate student Fabien Sorin
and post-doc Ayman Abouraddy. Photo /
Donna Coveney UNKNOWN
source: http://img.mit.edu/newsoffice/im
ages/article_images/200908311112003221.j
pg
[07/01/2004 AD]
ship to orbit the planet Saturn.
[1] * original caption: Jet Propulsion
Laboratory (JPL) workers use a
borescope to verify pressure relief
device bellows integrity on a
radioisotope thermoelectric generator
(RTG) which has been installed on the
Cassini spacecraft in the Payload
Hazardous Servicing Facility. The
activity is part of the mechanical and
electrical verification testing of RTGs
during prelaunch processing. RTGs use
heat from the natural decay of
plutonium to generate electric power.
The three RTGs on Cassini will enable
the spacecraft to operate far from the
Sun where solar power systems are not
feasible. They will provide electrical
power to Cassini on its 6.7-year trip
to the Saturnian system and during its
four-year mission at Saturn. The
Cassini mission is scheduled for an
Oct. 6 launch aboard a Titan
IVB/Centaur expendable launch vehicle.
Cassini is built and managed for NASA
by JPL. * date: 18. Dec 1997
* image ID: KSC-97PC-1070 *
source:
http://nix.ksc.nasa.gov/info;jsessionid=
1tplxxjif20rp?id=KSC-97PC-1070&orgid=5
PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/61/Cassini_assembly.jpg
[2] Original Caption Released with
Image: This is an artists concept of
Cassini during the Saturn Orbit
Insertion (SOI) maneuver, just after
the main engine has begun firing. The
spacecraft is moving out of the plane
of the page and to the right (firing to
reduce its spacecraft velocity with
respect to Saturn) and has just crossed
the ring plane. The SOI maneuver,
which is approximately 90 minutes long,
will allow Cassini to be captured by
Saturn's gravity into a five-month
orbit. Cassini's close proximity to the
planet after the maneuver offers a
unique opportunity to observe Saturn
and its rings at extremely high
resolution. Source:
http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/catalog
/PIA03883 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b2/Cassini_Saturn_Orbit_
Insertion.jpg
[11/29/2004 AD]
damaged nerves, allowing a paralyzed
human to walk.
Korea
[1] Figure 2 The atrophied spinal
cord is expanded after stem cell
administration with total laminectomy
on pre-contrast axial CT films (b). The
lowermost portion of the atrophied
spinal cord is enlarged, along with
thinning and interruption of the
calcified pia mater at the T12–L1
level on pre-contrast axial CT films
(d). Sagittal T2 weighted SE MRI reveal
regenerating spinal cord at the injured
level (arrow, f) and some of the cauda
equina below it (arrow heads, f). CT
images before cell transplantation (a,
c) and MRI image before cell
transplantation (e). Fig 2
from: Kang KS, Kim SW, Oh YH, et al.
(2005). ''A 37-year-old spinal
cord-injured female patient,
transplanted of multipotent stem cells
from human UC blood, with improved
sensory perception and mobility, both
functionally and morphologically: a
case study''. Cytotherapy 7 (4):
368–73.
DOI:10.1080/14653240500238160. PMID
16162459. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://informahealthcare.com/na1
01/home/literatum/publisher/ashley/journ
als/content/cyt/2005/cyt.2005.7.issue-4/
14653240500238160/production/images/larg
e/14653240500238160fig002.jpeg
[01/14/2005 AD]
(Titan) (European Space Agency (E.S.A.)
"Huygens" Titan probe).
[1] Description Huygens on
Titan.jpg English: This artist's
impression is based on images from
Huygens landing on Titan. In the
foreground, sits the car-sized lander
that sent back images for more than 90
minutes before running out of battery
power. The parachute that slowed
Huygen's re-entry is seen in the
background, still attached to the
lander. Smooth stones, possibly
containing water-ice, are strewn about
the landscape. Analyses of Huygen's
images and data show that Titan's
surface today has intriguing
similarities to the surface of the
early Earth. Date 8 March
2010(2010-03-08) Source NASA
Image of the Day Author ESA PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/bc/Huygens_on_Titan.jpg
[2] English: Image of Titan's surface
taken by the Huygens probe on 14
January 2005. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/bc/Huygens_surface_color
.jpg
[12/10/2008 AD]
Magnetic Resonance Imaging. Image of
what eyes are seeing is captured
remotely and different syllables of
thought-audio distinguished from each
other remotely.
Presuming remote neuron reading was
actually achieved in the year 1310,
this may be 698 years after humans
first saw eyes.
Because an MRI machine is very large,
the idea of casually walking around
seeing an image of what a brain is
looking at is not yet practical. To
vastly reduce the scale of this remote
neuron reading process may require
nanometer sized transmitters and
receivers that enter the body and
function as human-made cellular
organelles sending the state of a
neuron and remotely receiving an
instruction to make the neuron fire.
(Determine if there was an earlier
remote neuron reading. State the first
direct neuron reading.)
two Japanese Universities, two research
Institutes, and ATR Computational
Neuroscience Laboratories) Kyoto,
Japan
[1] Image from 12/10/2008 ''Neuron''
paper COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.cell.com/neuron/image
/S0896-6273(08)00958-6?imageId=gr2&image
Type=large
[2] Image from 12/10/2008 ''Neuron''
paper COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.cell.com/neuron/image
/S0896-6273(08)00958-6?imageId=gr1&image
Type=large
[10/12/2009 AD]
dimensions.
Zurich, Switzerland
[1] The centerpiece of the new
microlaser is the electric resonator,
consisting of two semi-circular
capacitors that are connected via an
inductor (here, a scanning electron
microscope image). The color intensity
represents the strength of the
electrical field; the color itself, the
respective polarity. (Credit: Photo:
ETH Zurich) UNKNOWN
source: http://images.sciencedaily.com/2
010/04/100405132251-large.jpg
[2] Figure from: Christoph Walther et
al, ''Microcavity Laser Oscillating in
a Circuit-Based Resonator'', Science 19
March 2010: 327 (5972),
1495-1497. http://www.sciencemag.org/co
ntent/327/5972/1495.full Fig.
1 (A) Schematic of the LC laser.
Formula is the alternating current in
the resonator, Formula is the induced
magnetic field, and Formula is the
electric field. The active gain medium
is biased by the voltage source VDC.
(B) Scanning electron micrograph
picture of the LC laser device. (C)
Schematic cross section through the
device along the symmetry axis. The red
layer is undoped Al0.5Ga0.5As and
prevents current injection into the
active region below the bonding pad. (D
and E) Finite-element simulations of
the electromagnetic field in the
resonator showing the dominating
electric field component Ez and the
norm of the magnetic field Formula. (F)
Measured reflectivity at 10 K of an
array of 400 identical LC resonators,
shown in the inset and designed for a
frequency of 1.45 THz, without gain
medium and without electrical
connection. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/conten
t/327/5972/1495/F1.large.jpg
[05/02/2011 AD]
two-dimensions.
Ltd) Omer, Israel
[1] Apparently image of .9mm
camera from ''Yaron Silberman''
reply to camera@medigus.com UNKNOWN
source: camera@medigus.com
[2] Figure from: Patrick Robert Gill,
Changhyuk Lee, Dhon-Gue Lee, Albert
Wang, and Alyosha Molnar, ''A
microscale camera using direct
Fourier-domain scene capture'', Optics
Letters, Vol. 36, Issue 15, pp.
2949-2951 (2011)
doi:10.1364/OL.36.002949 http://www.opt
icsinfobase.org/ol/abstract.cfm?URI=ol-3
6-15-2949 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.opticsinfobase.org/ol
/abstract.cfm?URI=ol-36-15-2949
[05/08/2011 AD]
mice by destroying senescent cells,
cells that no longer grow or divide.
The animals did not live longer, but
they gained more healthy months.
Baker and team use of a biomarker for
senescence to design a novel transgene
for inducible elimination of the
biomarker-positive senescent cells upon
administration of a drug.
Rochester, Minnesota, USA
[1] Baker, Darren J. et al.
“Clearance of p16Ink4a-positive
senescent cells delays
ageing-associated disorders.” Nature
479.7372 (2011): 232-236.
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v
479/n7372/full/nature10600.html
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v479/n7372/images/nature10600-f2.2.
jpg
[2015 AD]
directly from the electricity of the
nerve cells caused by the sound (direct
neuron reading, "hearing ears").
[2015 AD]
remotely from the light emitted by
nerve cells caused by the sound (remote
neuron reading, "hearing ears"). These
recorded sounds are also played out
loud for all to hear.
[1] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
[2015 AD]
microphone. This camera uses particle
communication to reduce its size.
[1] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington PD
source: Ted Huntington
[2018 AD]
organelle.
[1] Adapted from: Description
English: Drawing illustrating the
process of synaptic transmission in
neurons, cropped from original in an
NIA brochure. Date 2009-12-30,
first publication of original
unknown Source
http://www.nia.nih.gov/Alzheimers/P
ublications/UnravelingtheMystery/ Autho
r user:Looie496 created file, US
National Institutes of Health, National
Institute on Aging created
original Permission (Reusing this
file)
http://www.nia.nih.gov/Policies.htm Ot
her versions
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Chemi
cal_synapse_schema.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/30/Chemical_synapse_sche
ma_cropped.jpg
[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington PD
source: Ted Huntington
[2020 AD]
microscopic devices in neurons.
Microscopic devices enter the human
body by the lung, enter the blood
circulation which connects directly to
all cells, and position themselves as
organelles inside cells. External
devices communicate with the
intracellular devices to make the
neuron cell fire.
[1] Image of Direct-to-brain windows by
Ted Huntington GNU
source: http://www.tedhuntington.com/Mic
key_Mouse_eyes_thought_screens.jpg
[2] Image of Direct-to-brain windows
by Ted Huntington GNU
source: http://www.tedhuntington.com/dir
ect-to-brain_windows_002.jpg
[2020 AD]
quantity, and available for public to
buy.
[2020 AD]
flying device.
[1] Imaginary microscopic flying camera
on top of salt crystals Ted
Huntington PD
source: http://tedhuntington.com/saltcry
stal_127um.jpg
[2025 AD]
remotely using remote neuron reading
and shown publicly.
[1] Image of Direct-to-brain windows by
Ted Huntington GNU
source: http://www.tedhuntington.com/Mic
key_Mouse_eyes_thought_screens.jpg
[2] Image of Direct-to-brain windows
by Ted Huntington GNU
source: http://www.tedhuntington.com/dir
ect-to-brain_windows_002.jpg
[2025 AD]
neuron reading) and played out loud
publicly. Humans start to communicate
by thought-image and thought-sound
only. For this to work best tiny
particle transmit and receive devices
must integrate into neurons as
human-made organelles.
Presuming direct neuron
reading was actually achieved in the
year 1310, this may be 800 years after
humans first hear thought.
[1] Image of Direct-to-brain windows by
Ted Huntington GNU
source: http://www.tedhuntington.com/Mic
key_Mouse_eyes_thought_screens.jpg
[2] Image of Direct-to-brain windows
by Ted Huntington GNU Storyboard
image by Ted Huntington PD
source: http://www.tedhuntington.com/dir
ect-to-brain_windows_002.jpg
[2025 AD]
flying camera.
[1] Imaginary microscopic flying camera
on top of salt crystals Ted
Huntington PD
source: http://tedhuntington.com/saltcry
stal_127um.jpg
[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington PD
source: Ted Huntington
[2025 AD]
[1] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington PD
source: Ted Huntington
[2030 AD]
humans in most low-skill jobs (walking
security cameras, fast-food, fruit
picking).
[2040 AD]
lighter and more electrically
efficient, than motor robots.
[1] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
[2040 AD]
together, and other non-sexual forms of
pleasure for money decriminalized for
humans over the age of 18.
[2040 AD]
humans over the age of 18. No humans
are arrested for owning or selling
marijuana.
[2040 AD]
device (ornithopter).
[2050 AD]
servants. These robots clean and cook
for their owners.
[1] Ted Huntington image of two humans
walking with robot servants. GNU
source: Ted Huntington
[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
[2050 AD]
muscles robot can fly like a bird by
flapping wings.
[2050 AD]
cars established.
[2050 AD]
by micro or nanometer scale particle
device inside an animal body. By 2100
all bacteria and even viral diseases
can be stopped by nanometer scale
devices.
[1] Adapted from: Electron microscopy
image of several E. coli cells,
including two pairs of dividing
cells PD
source: http://www.bnl.gov/bnlweb/pubaf/
pr/photos/2009/10/eColi-350px.jpg
[2] Figure 2. Phagocytosis Coloured
scanning electron micrograph of a white
blood cell (orange) caught in the act
of engulfing bacteria (blue rods). As
Ilya Metchikov observed, wandering
cells called phagocytes migrate to
areas of tissue damage or infection to
engulf and digest any harmful foreign
particles, bacteria, and dead/dying
cells. Credit: Dr Kari Lounatmaa /
Science Photo Library. The photo was
kindly provided by Dr Kari Lounatmaa /
Science Photo Library. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nobelprize.org/educat
ional/medicine/immuneresponses/overview/
images/fig_02.jpg
[2055 AD]
microscopic devices inside an animal
body.
[1] Adapted from: Pictured is a breast
cancer cell, photographed by a scanning
electron microscope. This picture shows
the overall shape of the cell's surface
at a very high magnification. Cancer
cells are best identified by internal
details, but research with a scanning
electron microscope can show how cells
respond in changing environments and
can show mapping distribution of
binding sites of hormones and other
biological molecules. (National Cancer
Institute) UNKNOWN
source: http://cache.boston.com/universa
l/site_graphics/blogs/bigpicture/micro_1
1_14/m31_3b.jpg
[2] Lung Cancer Cells This image of
warped lung cancer cells is in stark
contrast to the healthy lung. UNKNOWN
source: http://1.bp.blogspot.com/_kGhJLc
78v60/TCytjueY3wI/AAAAAAAAA00/F8-TCWOsNq
4/s1600/Lung+cancer+cellsl.jpg
[2058 AD]
particle device inside an animal body.
[2060 AD]
buttock fondling for money
decriminalized for humans over the age
of 18. Humans over 18 are no longer
arrested for trading manual
masturbation, genital, breast or
buttock fondling for money.
[2060 AD]
microscopic devices inside an animal
body.
[1] Image taken from cover of CalIT
Interface Winter 2011 magazine UNKNOWN
source: http://www.calit2.uci.edu/calit2
-newsroom/itemdetail.aspx?cguid=a01325cf
-2548-43fc-a2c4-0b9161f6cf84
[2] Artificial Nano “T4
Bacteriophage” Description: “T4
Bacteriophage” is a virus like the
robot in the living body. Artificial
nano “T4 Bacteriophage” was
fabricated by FIB-CVD on Si surface.
Size of the artificial nano “T4
Bacteriophage” is about ten times as
large as the real virus. It is made of
Diamond-like Carbon. It is likely to
begin to walk in the nano space!!
Magnification: 25,000X Instrument: SII
NanoTechnology Inc. / SMI2050MS2
Submitted by: Reo Kometani & Shinji
Matsui (University of Hyogo) UNKNOWN
source: http://cache.gizmodo.com/assets/
images/4/2009/11/t4bacteriophage.jpg
[2080 AD]
humans over the age of 18. No humans
are arrested for receiving or providing
oral sex for money with no regard to
gender or either participant.
[2100 AD]
images and sounds of thought.
[1] Image of Direct-to-brain windows by
Ted Huntington GNU
source: http://www.tedhuntington.com/Mic
key_Mouse_eyes_thought_screens.jpg
[2] Image of Direct-to-brain windows
by Ted Huntington GNU
source: http://www.tedhuntington.com/dir
ect-to-brain_windows_002.jpg
[2100 AD]
of traffic above the streets.
[1] Image of single helicopter highway
by Ted Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
[2] Image of double helicopter highway
by Ted Huntington Note that
helicopters are moving in wrong
way. GNU
source: Ted Huntington
[2100 AD]
[1] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
[2100 AD]
cars. Most consumer land vehicles are
now driven by walking robots.
[2100 AD]
over the age of 18. No humans are
arrested for buying or selling cocaine.
[2100 AD]
build buildings.
[2100 AD]
conquered. Microscopic devices can
identify and destroy all known bacteria
and viruses anywhere inside or outside
of the body.
End of disease caused by
bacteria and viruses when caught early
enough.
[2120 AD]
flying cars (helicopters). Most flying
cars are now controlled by walking
robots.
[2120 AD]
on Mars.
[2130 AD]
[2140 AD]
can convert most common atoms (Silicon,
Aluminum, Iron, and Calcium) into the
much more useful atoms (Hydrogen,
Oxygen, Nitrogen). This allows many
humans to live independently of Earth,
on planets and moons without water,
because they can produce all the fuel,
water and food they need from the
common atoms of the planet or moon.
[1] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
[2140 AD]
and cheese.
[2150 AD]
democratic, where the people vote
directly on the laws. From this will
evolve a planetary and ultimately an
interstellar electronic voting system
where votes are placed by thought or
hand writing.
[2150 AD]
air on Earth.
[2150 AD]
gasoline for gas engines.
[2150 AD]
[2150 AD]
control microscopic devices.
[1] Microscopic laser-machined particle
communication devices identify and
change nucleotides in a DNA molecule as
seen with an scanning tunneling
microscope.[t] Adapted from: F/col
STM image of DNA G110/0150 Rights
Managed Credit: LAWRENCE LIVERMORE
LABORATORY/SCIENCE PHOTO
LIBRARY Caption: False-colour scanning
tunnelling micrograph (STM) of DNA. A
sample of uncoated, double-stranded DNA
was dissolved in a salt solution &
deposited on graphite prior to being
imaged in air by the STM. An STM image
is formed by scanning a fine point just
above the specimen surface &
electronically recording the height of
the point as it moves. The main feature
of this image is a right-handed,
double-stranded DNA molecule (a DNA
duplex), which appears as the row of
orange/yellow peaks at centre-left.
These peaks correspond to the ridges of
the DNA double helix. Magnification:
x1,600,000 at 6x7cm size. Release
details: Model and property releases
are not available UNKNOWN
source: http://www.sciencephoto.com/imag
e/209654/large/G1100150-F_col_STM_image_
of_DNA-SPL.jpg
[2] Microscopic devices change
DNA[t] Adapted from Unlinked DNA
under electron microscope UNKNOWN
source: http://www.fidelitysystems.com/u
nlinked_DNA_EM_1.JPG
[2170 AD]
moon of Earth.
[2180 AD]
[1] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
[2200 AD]
replaced humans in most manual labor
tasks (driving, cleaning, food
planting, harvesting, preparing and
serving).
In addition, robots dominate the most
dangerous parts of law enforcement and
personal security.
[1] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
[2200 AD]
earth.
[1] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
[2200 AD]
[2200 AD]
regrow and reshape damaged cells.
[1] A scanning electron microscope
(SEM) image of nanowire-alginate
composite scaffolds. Star-shaped
clusters of nanowires can be seen in
these images. Image courtesy of the
Disease Biophysics Group, Harvard
University UNKNOWN
source: http://img.mit.edu/newsoffice/im
ages/article_images/20110923141316-1.jpg
[2] A scanning electron microscope
image of cells growing on a
microsensor. The researchers were able
to measure the increase in mass as they
watched a cell grow and divide into
four cells. Photo courtesy Rashid
Bashir UNKNOWN
source: http://cdn.physorg.com/newman/gf
x/news/hires/2-microsensors.jpg
[2210 AD]
China. All major nations representative
or fully democratic.
[2220 AD]
around on surface of asteroid.
[2240 AD]
surface of an asteroid.
[2250 AD]
asteroid.
[2250 AD]
for the most developed nations on
earth. This ends arrests of humans for
owning, buying or selling images that
violate national secrecy, copyright,
patent, trademark, privacy, or are
graphically violent, are pornographic.
This greatly helps to lower the
quantity of violence and spread of
disease on earth.
[2250 AD]
decriminalized in most major nations.
This includes all forms of trading
money for physical pleasure.
[2250 AD]
decriminalized in most major nations.
[2250 AD]
around on the surface of planet
Mercury.
[2250 AD]
around on the surface of a moon of
Jupiter.
[2260 AD]
around on the surface of a moon of
Saturn.
[2275 AD]
[2280 AD]
is electronic.
[2280 AD]
around on the surface of a moon of
Uranus.
[2280 AD]
other and do not talk out loud. The
majority of humans communicate through
thought images and sound. The images
and sounds are beamed directly to their
brains. People view other people in
windows which appear before their eyes,
squares which show the image a person
is thinking of, and other videos from
the person's life appear around the
image of the person. (Show image)
[2280 AD]
orbits the Sun.
[2290 AD]
transport humans from Earth to the moon
of Earth.
[2300 AD]
on planet Mars.
[2300 AD]
around on the surface of Triton, the
moon of Neptune.
[2300 AD]
right to vote, to work, to pose nude,
and to have consensual sex.
[2300 AD]
[2310 AD]
[2320 AD]
surface of Venus.
[2340 AD]
Mercury.
[2350 AD]
Mercury.
[1] Adapted from image from NASA
Messenger ship PD
source: http://1.bp.blogspot.com/_qcuftp
B9Hx8/TJOQmeFucWI/AAAAAAAACwg/Bl0M9a2_M1
0/s1600/Planet-Mercury.jpg
[2350 AD]
[2350 AD]
system for all places in the universe.
[2350 AD]
letter equals one sound alphabet for
all human language.
[2400 AD]
moon of Jupiter.
[1] The image show the Lander Falcon
skimming over one of the many ice
cravas of Jupiter’s moon Europa
looking for a suitable landing
place. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://api.ning.com/files/s7oIN4
97UMEE6dpA1xd*IhqzsZkYEn1zbiUE5*qsj*mBXD
EV7F1lGV*Qngn1qBdiZSdmNBsHbXquTTpGfoIHib
xxEsocyNr-/BB131FalconoverEuropaNR.jpg?w
idth=737&height=400
[2] Ganymede: Global Color View PD
source: http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/mult
imedia/gallery/gg1.jpg
[2400 AD]
robots to the stars of Alpha Centauri.
[2420 AD]
developed nations do not believe in any
gods.
[2500 AD]
Venus atmosphere is started.
This is the first major "removal of gas
atmosphere" engineering work of humans.
Eventually the gas surrounding all
planets will be removed and consumed.
After most of the gas is removed, and
the surface of the planet cools down,
Oxygen and nitrogen gas will be
released to create a new atmosphere.
This project removes the Carbon from
the atmosphere and converts it to H2,
O2. This process may be done by
thousands of surface (and/or low orbit)
machines working in parallel. There is
so much gas on Venus, that this process
may take 1000 years or more.
[1] Description Image of Venus in
real color processed from the clear and
blue filters (colors are probably
enhanced). Date 2006-09-16
(original upload
date) Source http://astrosurf.com/n
unes/explor/explor_m10.htm Author N
ASA/Ricardo Nunes PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/51/Venus-real.jpg
[2] Adapted from: A rover that could
survive the intense heat of Venus, seen
here in an artist's impression, could
revolutionise our understanding of the
planet. Cooled by a Stirling Cooler
with electronics at 200 °C and
external radiator at 500 °C. Since the
Venusian atmosphere is 'only' 450 °C
the radiator will lose
energy. Geoffrey Landis and Kenneth
Mellott from NASA's Glenn Research
Center in Ohio. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/15/Venus_Rover.jpg
[2500 AD]
Using genetic
editing, humans grow and develop to age
20, and then hold that body shape
indefinitely, dying only from physical
destruction. Humans now live for
thousands of years. This causes the
human population to grow at an
extremely rapid pace.
[1] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
[2500 AD]
are not religious.
[2550 AD]
surface of Venus (in supercooled
buildings?).
[1] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
[2570 AD]
moved by life. Multiple ships are used
to create a mass large enough to change
the motion of an asteroid using
gravity.
[1] Adapted from: The Missing Craters
of Asteroid Itokawa Credit &
Copyright: ISAS, JAXA Explanation:
Where are the craters on asteroid
Itokawa? No one knows. The Japanese
robot probe Hayabusa recently
approached the Earth-crossing asteroid
and is returning pictures showing a
surface unlike any other Solar System
body yet photographed -- a surface
possibly devoid of craters. One
possibility for the lack of common
circular indentations is that asteroid
Itokawa is a rubble pile -- a bunch of
rocks and ice chunks only loosely held
together by a small amount of gravity.
If so, craters might be filled in
whenever the asteroid gets jiggled by a
passing planet -- Earth in this case.
Alternatively, surface particles may
become electrically charged by the Sun,
levitate in the microgravity field, and
move to fill in craters. Over the
weekend, Hayabusa lowered itself to the
surface of the strange asteroid in an
effort to study the unusual body and
collect surface samples that could be
returned to Earth in 2007. PD
source: http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/image/
0511/itokawa05_hayabusa.jpg
[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
[2600 AD]
propulsion engine (either built into
the asteroid, or on a ship or ships
connected to the asteroid by cables to
pull the asteroid).
[2650 AD]
velocity and direction completely under
human control.
[2650 AD]
particles. Photon fusion. The reverse
of separating atoms into light
particles.
This process may involve focusing light
particles to form larger particles,
like electrons, and protons, which can
then be collided together to form
larger atoms.
[1] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
[2700 AD]
[2701 AD]
[1] Saturn from the surface of
Dione. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://spaceart1.ning.com/photo/
saturn-from-dione/next?context=user
AND http://microgravity.grc.nasa.gov/Ad
vanced/Capabilities/ETDP/images/lunarlan
der.jpg
[2750 AD]
Centauri). First close up pictures of
planets of a different star.
Smaller ships land on all the planets
and moons of Centauri.
Robots start mining and building to
prepare for the many millions of humans
that will eventually arrive.
[1] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
[2765 AD]
another star identified (bacteria made
of DNA).
[1] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
[2800 AD]
[1] Adapted from: The Missing Craters
of Asteroid Itokawa Credit &
Copyright: ISAS, JAXA Explanation:
Where are the craters on asteroid
Itokawa? No one knows. The Japanese
robot probe Hayabusa recently
approached the Earth-crossing asteroid
and is returning pictures showing a
surface unlike any other Solar System
body yet photographed -- a surface
possibly devoid of craters. One
possibility for the lack of common
circular indentations is that asteroid
Itokawa is a rubble pile -- a bunch of
rocks and ice chunks only loosely held
together by a small amount of gravity.
If so, craters might be filled in
whenever the asteroid gets jiggled by a
passing planet -- Earth in this case.
Alternatively, surface particles may
become electrically charged by the Sun,
levitate in the microgravity field, and
move to fill in craters. Over the
weekend, Hayabusa lowered itself to the
surface of the strange asteroid in an
effort to study the unusual body and
collect surface samples that could be
returned to Earth in 2007. PD
source: http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/image/
0511/itokawa05_hayabusa.jpg
[2800 AD]
not believe in any gods.
[2800 AD]
not believe in any heaven or hell.
[2800 AD]
the molecular content of the air on
Earth. The quantity of O2, N2, CO2, etc
is under complete control by humans.
(to do: determine when if ever the
weather of Earth will be under complete
control.)
[2800 AD]
for the stars of Alpha Centauri and
will arrive successfully, perhaps 400
years later. This begins the process of
many humans leaving the home star
system, like so many humans before
them, with the dream of a new land of
plenty, which is probably somewhat true
for the other stars. And like so many
other early human settlers, the initial
conditions may be not as developed as
the home they are leaving.
[2800 AD]
leave for Barnard's star, 6 light years
away and will arrive successfully,
perhaps 350 years later.
[2800 AD]
relative to the star and other planets.
The asteroid orbit is stopped, and the
asteroid is held stationary in a fixed
position relative to the star.
[2800 AD]
moon of Uranus.
[1] Adapted from: Uranus seen from
Oberon UNKNOWN
source: http://api.ning.com/files/DzXL-l
W6TdpjPVXja-k32xq4*PiPHvNiITlxVu5JoQ*XRl
Z72k*OlXD710b-zT2jIomp7im9tEUk0AzJ4HNiph
MGf2J-UCLg/Oberon.jpg?width=737&height=5
69 AND
http://microgravity.grc.nasa.gov/Advan
ced/Capabilities/ETDP/images/lunarlander
.jpg
[2800 AD]
moon. Perhaps this will be a small moon
of Jupiter, or maybe Mars. Perhaps the
moon orbit will be slightly changed.
Ultimately the moons of Jupiter may be
moved into orbit around the star.
[1] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
[2850 AD]
planet. (Planet Earth). Earth may be
the first planet whose motion is
purposely changed by humans. The motion
of Earth and the moon of earth are
purposely changed by orbiting ships.
The large quantity of ships in orbit
causes the motion of earth to be
carefully monitored and periodically
changed using mass organized ship
movements. By this time the planet
Earth and Moon are visibly surrounded
by millions of orbiting ships.
[1] Image of ships surrounding Earth in
the future by Ted Huntington Source of
Texture map for Earth unknown GNU
source: Ted Huntington
[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
[2900 AD]
Jupiter. First image of the surface of
Jupiter. Surface found to be molten
liquid, and six times the diameter of
Earth, making Jupiter the second
largest solid body of this star system
after the Sun.
[1] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
[2900 AD]
Earth carrying matter from Centauri.
This begins a long term project of
selling surplus matter around Centauri
to the humans of the Earth star where
consumable atoms are in great demand.
[2900 AD]
become apparent as a result of living
many generations in low gravity. For
humans who live their lives in low
gravity, they may start to look more
like ocean organisms - most of which do
not walk on a surface but instead move
themselves around in by water
propulsion - for humans this being air
propulsion. Humans may also develop
more genitals and sex-related organs,
and more accentuated sex organs, larger
breasts, penises and scrotums, rounder
buttocks, etc. Humans may start to have
both sets of genitals, and converge to
a single gender, which both gametes,
like many plants. (perhaps should push
to later time.)
[2900 AD]
a moon of Neptune (Triton).
[1] Intrepid-over-Proteus Neptune's
Moon Proteus The Lander Intrepid skims
the heavily cratered moon Proteus in
search for a landing area. Proteus is a
relatively large moon, similar in size
to Saturn’s moon Mimas, but was not
discovered until Voyager 2 flew by
because it is very dark and orbits very
close to Neptune. Like Mimas, it is
irregular in shape, heavily cratered,
and has no sign of internally generated
geologic activity in its
past. UNKNOWN
source: http://api.ning.com/files/n*cJoC
Qsunpuu6EpNQKC3KHkTJPnAZoABx8opILfQ7o_/I
ntrepidoverProteus.jpg?width=737&height=
469
[2900 AD]
leave for the stars of Sirius, 8 light
years away and will arrive
successfully, perhaps 450 years later.
[2950 AD]
[3000 AD]
starts.
There may be such great fear of the
unknown consequences of changing the
mass of the planets by removing their
gases and cooling their surfaces that
these project may have to wait and be
done first around planets of other
stars first before being done around
the home star. However, this removal of
the atmosphere may be a natural result
of ships "feeding" on the matter of
Jupiter. Atoms of the atmosphere are
constantly used by ships orbiting
Jupiter for fuel, food, building
materials, etc. This reduces the total
mass of Jupiter, and will ultimately
reveal the surface features, and cool
the surface of planet Jupiter. Many
humans fear unpredictable unknown
physical occurances, like Jupiter
somehow exploding because of the sudden
change in mass and temperature.
However, it seems unlikely that
reducing the mass and temperature of
Jupiter by consuming the clouds will
cause destruction of the planet. This
mass is replaced by the added orbiting
ships in which humans live. The massive
Venus atmopshere processing project has
already served as proof that changing
the atmosphere of a planet has little
effect on the overall mass and motion
of a planet. Fears of unknown effects
of the solidifying of Jupiter, for
example, causing internal instability,
may not be justified because it seems
unlikely that Jupiter would fall apart
if gradually cooled, but doubts will
probably always exist long into the
future. Like removing the gases around
Venus, this project may take 1000 years
to complete. Possibly this will not be
done for a much longer time. This is a
balance between the reality of more and
more mass in the form of humans and
their ships changing the motion of
Jupiter, and the feeling of security of
having life safely growing around other
stars. It may be safe to presume that
humans will strongly reject any
absolutely unnecessary changes to any
planets or moons. I don't know for
sure, but I think, it seems inevitable
that humans will start to chip away at
the clouds of Jupiter, and it will
probably be difficult to stop. This
slow process will become routine, and
accepted. From here, it is just a
matter of this chipping away going all
the way down to the surface (and then
of course, beyond into the surface).
Probably by this time there will be
numerous, very detailed models. But
probably they will not be precise
enough to know for sure what may happen
to Jupiter as its mass rapidly
decreases. Clearly, humans will examine
worst case scenarios, like Jupiter
completely exploding. In such an event,
first it seems very unlikely that life
of other planets of this star would go
extinct or even serious suffer any
loses. It seems clear that most of the
exploded mass of Jupiter would not
collide with the other planets and
moons. Clearly most of those humans
around Jupiter would be destroyed by
the massive release of the compressed
particles inside Jupiter. But Jupiter
might only split into a few large
pieces and so damage might be somewhat
small compared to complete separation.
[3000 AD]
by life.
[3000 AD]
[3000 AD]
[3150 AD]
star, Barnard's star.
[1] Adapted
from: Description English: Artist's
conception of a the red dwarf star CHRX
73 A and its companion object CHRX 73
B. The companion object is around 12
Jupiter masses, and may either be a
planet, a failed star or a brown
dwarf Date 2006-09-02 Source Sel
f-made JPEG version of original TIFF
image at Hubble
website Author NASA, ESA and G.
Bacon (STScI) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/6/68/RedDwarfPlanet.
jpg/800px-RedDwarfPlanet.jpg AND
http://aetd.gsfc.nasa.gov/code540/540/ne
w_images/MLAS.jpg
[3200 AD]
and returns the first objects from a
different star. A regular export of
matter from Centauri to Earth will
continue after this. Humans around
Centauri build ships to explore other
stars. Perhaps there will be no reason
to trade with humans of Earth, since
humans of Earth may not have anything
to offer in trade.
[1] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
[3200 AD]
(Alpha Centauri), and orbit each of the
three stars of Alpha Centauri (Proxima
Centauri and Alpha Centauri A and B).
Humans can now claim to be a two star
system civilization. This doubles the
chances of the human species surviving
and not going extinct. This brings the
humans of earth one step closer to
forming a globular cluster which would
greatly increase their chance of
survival long into the future. Humans
will reproduce at a regular rate around
Centauri, and in addition more humans
will arrive from the star of Earth.
(Track population of humans around
Proxima Cetauri.)
[1] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
[3200 AD]
complete control by orbiting ships that
move and thrust to change the motion of
Mercury.
[3350 AD]
[1] Adapted from: Description This
picture is an artist's impression
showing how the binary star system of
Sirius A and its diminutive blue
companion, Sirius B, might appear to an
interstellar visitor. The large,
bluish-white star Sirius A dominates
the scene, while Sirius B is the small
but very hot and blue white-dwarf star
on the right. The two stars revolve
around each other every 50 years. White
dwarfs are the leftover remnants of
stars similar to our Sun. The Sirius
system, only 8.6 light-years from
Earth, is the fifth closest stellar
system known. Sirius B is faint because
of its tiny size. Its diameter is only
7,500 miles (about 12 thousand
kilometres), slightly smaller than the
size of our Earth. The Sirius system is
so close to Earth that most of the
familiar constellations would have
nearly the same appearance as in our
own sky. In this rendition, we see in
the background the three bright stars
that make up the Summer Triangle:
Altair, Deneb, and Vega. Altair is the
white dot above Sirius A; Deneb is the
dot to the upper right; and Vega lies
below Sirius B. But there is one
unfamiliar addition to the
constellations: our own Sun is the
second-magnitude star, shown as a small
dot just below and to the right of
Sirius
A. Date Source http://www.spacete
lescope.org/images/html/heic0516b.html
Author NASA, ESA Credit: G. Bacon
(STScI) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c9/Sirius_A_and_B_artwor
k.jpg
AND http://aetd.gsfc.nasa.gov/code540/5
40/new_images/MLAS.jpg
[3400 AD]
orbiting ships.
[3500 AD]
removed. The unlit surface of Venus
becomes much colder. This begins the
releasing of nitrogen and oxygen gases
to form an earth-like atmosphere on
Venus. Ultimately the humans will
completely consume the planets, their
matter being used in ships, fuel, air,
food, etc.
[1] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
[3600 AD]
orbiting ships.
[3800 AD]
maximum possible (250 trillion).
[3800 AD]
orbiting ships.
[3800 AD]
Jupiter. By consuming the gases of
Jupiter, the temperature at the surface
decreases enough for some supercooled
stations to contain humans. Technology
from those early settlers of the
surface of Venus will probably be
adapted for living on the surface of
Jupiter and the other Jovian giant
planets.
(requires supercooled station?)
[t State current theoretical surface
temperature of Jupiter)
[1] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
[3900 AD]
Mars reaches a physical maximum of 500
trillion (500e12) humans.
[3900 AD]
orbiting ships.
[4000 AD]
completely removed. This project may
have taken 1000 years to pull in and
compress and/or consume all the gases
surrounding Jupiter. This will greatly
reduce the surface temperature of
Jupiter which will solidify and be more
easily mined. This begins the release
of oxygen and nitrogen at the surface
of Jupiter to create an open-air
breathing environment for those living
on the surface of Jupiter. Ultimately
all of Jupiter and the other planets
will be completely consumed by the
descendents of humans.
[1] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
[4000 AD]
systems.
[1] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
[4000 AD]
orbiting ships.
[4100 AD]
orbiting ships.
[4100 AD]
atmosphere of Saturn project initiated.
This project will be completed 500
years later. The atmosphere of Saturn
will be replaced with a nitrogen and
oxygen atmosphere.
[4200 AD]
consumed by humans living there.
[4200 AD]
position relative to the star. The
motion of planet Mercury is stopped,
and the planet is held in a fixed
position relative to the Sun.
[4200 AD]
Uranus started. Atmosphere of Uranus
will be completely converted to a
nitrogen and oxygen atmosphere. This
will take 400 years to complete.
[4300 AD]
Neptune started.
[4500 AD]
[1] International Space Station crew
members are trained to observe and
document dynamic events on the
Earth’s surface, such as hurricanes,
forest fires, and volcanic eruptions.
Their observations provide scientists
and the general public a different
perspective on these events. Earlier
this week, astronauts in the crew of
the ISS-5 mission were able to observe
Mt. Etna’s spectacular eruption, and
photograph the details of the eruption
plume as well as smoke from fires
triggered by the lava as it flowed down
the 11,000-foot mountain. This image is
looking obliquely to the southeast over
the island of Sicily. A wider view
(ISS005-E-19016) shows the ash plume
curving out toward the horizon, caught
first by low-level winds blowing to the
southeast, and to the south toward
Africa at higher altitudes. Ashfall was
reported in Libya, more than 350 miles
away. The lighter-colored plumes
downslope and north of the summit (see
detailed view, ISS005-E-19024) are
produced by gas emissions from a line
of vents on the mountain’s north
flank. The detailed image provides a
three-dimensional profile of the
eruption plume. This was one of
Etna’s most vigorous eruptions in
years. The eruption was triggered by a
series of earthquakes on October 27.
These images were taken on October 30,
2002. Sicilans have learned to live
with Etna’s eruptions. Although
schools were closed and air traffic was
diverted because of the ash, no towns
or villages were threatened by the lava
flow. Astronaut photographs
ISS005-E-19016 and ISS005-E-19024 were
taken on October 30, 2002, at about
11:30 GMT and are provided by the Earth
Sciences and Image Analysis Laboratory
at Johnson Space Center. Additional
images taken by astronauts and
cosmonauts can be viewed at the
NASA-JSC Gateway to Astronaut
Photography of Earth. Instrument:
ISS - Digital Camera PD
source: http://eoimages.gsfc.nasa.gov/im
ages/imagerecords/2000/2923/etna2_ISS200
2303_lrg.jpg
[4500 AD]
different stars. One ship is from
humans of Centauri who extend the
exploration to stars too distant for
earth.
[4500 AD]
[4500 AD]
[4500 AD]
position.
[4500 AD]
Earth star are under complete control
of humans.
[1] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
[4500 AD]
Earth.
[1] Adapted from: The Death Star is
the size of a small moon. See more Star
Wars pictures. Photo courtesy ©
Lucasfilm Ltd. & TM. All Rights
Reserved. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://static.ddmcdn.com/gif/dea
th-star-1.jpg
[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
[4600 AD]
[4600 AD]
[4600 AD]
[4700 AD]
live in and on the surface of planets,
moons or asteroids.
[4700 AD]
[4800 AD]
physical maximum of 1 quadrillion
humans (1e15).
[4800 AD]
planet of the Earth star system,
overtaking earth in number of humans
living on and around it.
[5000 AD]
earth reaches a theoretical physical
maximum of 333 quadrillion (333e15)
humans.
[5000 AD]
with Nitrogen and Oxygen is complete.
This may take 1000 years from the time
of completely removal of all the
original gases of Jupiter. The colder
temperatures of Jupiter and the 3 other
largest planets cause oxygen and
nitrogen to be condense to liquid and
solid, however, the surface of Jupiter
produces some heat, and human-made
heat-producing machines can be
distributed throughout the planet
surface where humans settle to keep the
gases warm enough to stay in gas form.
Perhaps the gases in the atmosphere
will be adjusted to retain enough heat
to maintain a certain temperature.
[5000 AD]
different stars.
[5000 AD]
translational (but not rotational)
movement of the earth star.
(Might humans stop the rotation of the
Sun? It seems clear that it would be
possible, by using gravitation to
present a countering force.)
[5000 AD]
living objects and functions as a ship.
[1] Adapted from: The Death Star is
the size of a small moon. See more Star
Wars pictures. Photo courtesy ©
Lucasfilm Ltd. & TM. All Rights
Reserved. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://static.ddmcdn.com/gif/dea
th-star-1.jpg
[5100 AD]
converted into an atmosphere of
nitrogen and oxygen.
[5100 AD]
image created by advanced living
objects that evolved around a different
star. This is the first time humans see
images of advanced living objects that
evolved around a different star
(presuming the images contain images
of light reflected off the species that
transmitted the image in light
particles). It seems unlikely to me
that a stream of particles that either
form an image, or encode and image,
could be sent very far without
intending to send the particles to be
received at very far distances, for
example around other stars. For
example, the light we see of the
nearest stars, represents only a tiny
fraction of the light emitted from the
star. This shows that a transmitter of
particles, would have to be very large
to be received from living objects
orbiting a distant star. Because of the
value of the potential information
gained, clearly trying to intercept
every particle entering this star
system will be and already is an
important activity. This searching for
intelligently coded particle beams from
living objects of other stars, is all
part of an information gathering
process that all advanced life must
participate in. This also involves
sending probe ships to all nearby
stars, not only to prospect for
potential future homes, but also to see
if any life has evolved around the
star, life which may be a potential
friend or enemy. Life of other stars
may be looked at with some amount of
curiosity and interest in learning what
natural chemical and other scientific
secrets have been unlocked, but also
life of other stars will be looked at
as an obvious expense to the finite
resources available, even at a galactic
scale.
Humans will eventually send probe ships
to other stars that capture and send
back closeup images of advanced living
objects that evolved around other
stars.
[1] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
[5200 AD]
The human population is now: x. Humans
now have ships orbiting around 100
different stars.
[5200 AD]
breathable atmosphere is complete.
[5500 AD]
of Earth moved in direction of
Centauri. There are enough ships
orbiting the star, and popular support
to change the course of the star and
move it closer to the stars of Centauri
in order to make moving between the two
stars faster and more efficient.
Initially humans of the other stars
will not control enough matter to
change the motion of their star. But
perhaps after a few thousand years
there will be enough ships to
significantly change the motion of
their planets and stars.
This begins the forming of the globular
cluster humans may build if they are
successful.
[1] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
[6000 AD]
motion of enough matter to change the
direction of the stars of Centauri
towards the star of Earth.
The humans of earth have been moving
their star closer to Centauri for 500
years. This will make travel,
communication and trading of matter
between the two stars faster. The
initial goal may be to have all 4 stars
under 1 light year apart from each
other.
[6000 AD]
objects that evolved around a different
star. Certainly, this will cause a
large amount of excitement for the many
billions of organisms of both star
systems.
[1] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
[6500 AD]
cluster of 4 stars, the star of Earth,
and the 3 stars of Centauri, all within
1 light year apart from each other.
Humans occupy around 50 stars. In
addition humans have ships orbiting 500
different stars.
[11000 AD]
humans that do not need to eat but get
starch from photosynthesis like plants.
[12000 AD]
the requirement of humans to urinate
and deficate.
[13000 AD]
humans that may not need oxygen.
Perhaps particles from stars produce
the necessary chemicals and reactions,
like oxygen, hydrogen, etc.
[14000 AD]
look extremely different from humans on
earth now. For example, our descendants
may be intelligent spherical blobs with
various extensions (like arms and hands
sex/pleasure organs), or perhaps they
will retain a rigid, muscular form, but
vastly different in shape and size.
(Note: it seems likely that this change
might not happen this quickly - clearly
primates have evolved over millions of
years - and those features are very
similar - but it could be this fast
because the change in surroundings is
so different.)
[17000 AD]
trillion.
[1] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
[27000 AD]
controls a globular cluster of 10
stars, and inhabits around 100 other
stars. Humans have ships orbiting 1000
different stars. Human population is
now: x.
[1] The CFHT Open Cluster Survey : NGC
2099 Credit: Image courtesy of
Harvey Richer1, Patrick Durrell1,
Gregory Fahlman2, J. Kalirai1, F.
D'Antona3 & G. Marconi3 1 University
of British Columbia, Vancouver,
Canada 2 Canada-France-Hawaii
Telescope Corporation, Hawaii, USA 3
Osservatorio Astronomico di Roma, Italy
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.cfht.hawaii.edu/Scien
ce/Astros/Imageofweek/ciw-image/050600-2
.jpg
[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
[47000 AD]
controls a globular cluster of 100
stars, inhabits around 1000 other
stars, and has ships orbiting about
5000 other stars. Human population is
now: x.
[1] Description English: The
dazzling stars in Messier 15 look fresh
and new in this image from the
NASA/Hubble Space Telescope, but they
are actually all roughly 13 billion
years old, making them some of the most
ancient objects in the Universe. Unlike
another recent Hubble Picture of the
Week, which featured the unusually
sparse cluster Palomar 1, Messier 15 is
rich and bright despite its
age. Messier 15 is a globular
cluster — a spherical conglomeration
of old stars that formed together from
the same cloud of gas, found in the
outer reaches of the Milky Way in a
region known as the halo and orbiting
the Galactic Centre. This globular lies
about 35 000 light-years from the
Earth, in the constellation of Pegasus
(The Flying Horse). Messier 15 is
one of the densest globulars known,
with the vast majority of the
cluster’s mass concentrated in the
core. Astronomers think that
particularly dense globulars, like this
one, underwent a process called core
collapse, in which gravitational
interactions between stars led to many
members of the cluster migrating
towards the centre. Messier 15 is
also the first globular cluster known
to harbour a planetary nebula, and it
is still one of only four globulars
known to do so. The planetary nebula,
called Pease 1, can be seen in this
image as a small blue blob to the lower
left of the globular’s core. This
picture was put together from images
taken with the Wide Field Channel of
Hubble's Advanced Camera for Surveys.
Images through yellow/orange (F606W,
coloured blue) and near-infrared
(F814W, coloured red) filters were
combined. The total exposure times were
535 s and 615 s respectively and the
field of view is 3.4 arcminutes
across. Date 14 February
2011 Source
http://www.spacetelescope.org/image
s/potw1107a/ Author ESA/Hubble &
NASA PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/17/Messier_15_HST.jpg
[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
[52000 AD]
[57000 AD]
with living objects.
[62000 AD]
objects.
[67000 AD]
living objects.
There is no more molten material inside
the Earth. All the molten compressed
matter was extracted, cooled and
consumed as building materials, fuel,
food, etc. Earth is completely filled
with tunnels, rooms, and living
objects.
Alternatively, life may live in
orbiting ships, and the Earth is either
evacuated and the molten surface cooled
and consumed, or broken into pieces and
consumed.
[1] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
[72000 AD]
controls a globular cluster of 1,000
stars, inhabits 10,000 other stars, and
has ships orbiting around 100,000
stars. The human population is now: x.
[1] M15 Second attempt for a star
cluster. L 12x2min, RGB each 5x2min,
Dark no Flat. 1 click on the picture
(1024x690, 115 KB) Distance: 35000
Ly UNKNOWN
source: http://www.luluobservatorium.de/
Big%20Pictures/M15.jpg
[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
[92000 AD]
of 10,000 stars leaves the plane of the
Milky Way Galaxy.
Human population is now: x.
[1] M31 with some globular clusters
marked [t Note that each globular
cluster can be imagined to be formed by
some intelligent living
objects.] Image by Peter
Kennett UNKNOWN
source: http://www.petesastrophotography
.com/m31globs.jpg
[2] M31, Southwest Arm, NGC
206 copyright Robert Gendler
2005 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.robgendlerastropics.c
om/M31NMmosaicSW.jpg
have been used to make more living
objects, fuel and food, all that
remains are ships that orbit the Sun
and capture the particles the Sun emits
to use for fuel, food, building
material, etc. The inside matter of
planets has been completely utilized
while humans still lived on the
surface, because otherwise, it is
precious matter that would have gone
unused. Most of this extracting of
matter occurs on the earth surface.
Massive holes are dug into the Earth
that extend deep into the inner Earth.
Two-leg robots (and perhaps some
humans) populate and worked deep inside
the earth and the other planets moving
inner material to the surface.
This is a long steady-state of living
objects around stars - to be in ships,
the planets and original matter
completely consumed. in this state they
get light from the Sun, but mostly they
must bring back matter from other
stars. Probably ships and living
objects are recycled and improved, sot
here is probably some matter that is
available from waste, etc.
[1] Star with many ships around
it. Adapted from: English: The Sun
photographed by the Atmospheric Imaging
Assembly (AIA 304) of NASA's Solar
Dynamics Observatory (SDO). This is a
false color image of the sun observed
in the extreme ultraviolet region of
the spectrum. For example, similar
image. Date 2010-08-19T00:32:21Z
(ISO 8601) Source NASA/SDO
(AIA). Author NASA/SDO (AIA). PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/The_Sun_by_the_
Atmospheric_Imaging_Assembly_of_NASA%27s
_Solar_Dynamics_Observatory_-_20100819.j
pg/628px-The_Sun_by_the_Atmospheric_Imag
ing_Assembly_of_NASA%27s_Solar_Dynamics_
Observatory_-_20100819.jpg
[2] Globular Star Cluster 47
Tuc Image Credit & Copyright: Dieter
Willasch
(Astro-Cabinet) Explanation:
Globular star cluster 47 Tucanae is a
jewel of the southern sky. Also known
as NGC 104, it roams the halo of our
Milky Way Galaxy along with some 200
other globular star clusters. The
second brightest globular cluster
(after Omega Centauri) as seen from
planet Earth, it lies about 13,000
light-years away and can be spotted
naked-eye near the Small Magellanic
Cloud in the constellation of the
Toucan. The dense cluster is made up of
several million stars in a volume only
about 120 light-years across. Red giant
stars on the outskirts of the cluster
are easy to pick out as yellowish stars
in this sharp telescopic portrait.
Globular cluster 47 Tuc is also home to
exotic x-ray binary star systems. PD
source: http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/image/
1101/47Tuc_DW.jpg
[1] Star with many ships around
it. Adapted from: English: The Sun
photographed by the Atmospheric Imaging
Assembly (AIA 304) of NASA's Solar
Dynamics Observatory (SDO). This is a
false color image of the sun observed
in the extreme ultraviolet region of
the spectrum. For example, similar
image. Date 2010-08-19T00:32:21Z
(ISO 8601) Source NASA/SDO
(AIA). Author NASA/SDO (AIA). PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/The_Sun_by_the_
Atmospheric_Imaging_Assembly_of_NASA%27s
_Solar_Dynamics_Observatory_-_20100819.j
pg/628px-The_Sun_by_the_Atmospheric_Imag
ing_Assembly_of_NASA%27s_Solar_Dynamics_
Observatory_-_20100819.jpg
[2] Globular Star Cluster 47
Tuc Image Credit & Copyright: Dieter
Willasch
(Astro-Cabinet) Explanation:
Globular star cluster 47 Tucanae is a
jewel of the southern sky. Also known
as NGC 104, it roams the halo of our
Milky Way Galaxy along with some 200
other globular star clusters. The
second brightest globular cluster
(after Omega Centauri) as seen from
planet Earth, it lies about 13,000
light-years away and can be spotted
naked-eye near the Small Magellanic
Cloud in the constellation of the
Toucan. The dense cluster is made up of
several million stars in a volume only
about 120 light-years across. Red giant
stars on the outskirts of the cluster
are easy to pick out as yellowish stars
in this sharp telescopic portrait.
Globular cluster 47 Tuc is also home to
exotic x-ray binary star systems. PD
source: http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/image/
1101/47Tuc_DW.jpg
[1] Adapted from: Description This
picture is an artist's impression
showing how the binary star system of
Sirius A and its diminutive blue
companion, Sirius B, might appear to an
interstellar visitor. The large,
bluish-white star Sirius A dominates
the scene, while Sirius B is the small
but very hot and blue white-dwarf star
on the right. The two stars revolve
around each other every 50 years. White
dwarfs are the leftover remnants of
stars similar to our Sun. The Sirius
system, only 8.6 light-years from
Earth, is the fifth closest stellar
system known. Sirius B is faint because
of its tiny size. Its diameter is only
7,500 miles (about 12 thousand
kilometres), slightly smaller than the
size of our Earth. The Sirius system is
so close to Earth that most of the
familiar constellations would have
nearly the same appearance as in our
own sky. In this rendition, we see in
the background the three bright stars
that make up the Summer Triangle:
Altair, Deneb, and Vega. Altair is the
white dot above Sirius A; Deneb is the
dot to the upper right; and Vega lies
below Sirius B. But there is one
unfamiliar addition to the
constellations: our own Sun is the
second-magnitude star, shown as a small
dot just below and to the right of
Sirius
A. Date Source http://www.spacete
lescope.org/images/html/heic0516b.html
Author NASA, ESA Credit: G. Bacon
(STScI) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Sirius_A_and_B_
artwork.jpg/800px-Sirius_A_and_B_artwork
.jpg
[2] Adapted from: Description This
picture is an artist's impression
showing how the binary star system of
Sirius A and its diminutive blue
companion, Sirius B, might appear to an
interstellar visitor. The large,
bluish-white star Sirius A dominates
the scene, while Sirius B is the small
but very hot and blue white-dwarf star
on the right. The two stars revolve
around each other every 50 years. White
dwarfs are the leftover remnants of
stars similar to our Sun. The Sirius
system, only 8.6 light-years from
Earth, is the fifth closest stellar
system known. Sirius B is faint because
of its tiny size. Its diameter is only
7,500 miles (about 12 thousand
kilometres), slightly smaller than the
size of our Earth. The Sirius system is
so close to Earth that most of the
familiar constellations would have
nearly the same appearance as in our
own sky. In this rendition, we see in
the background the three bright stars
that make up the Summer Triangle:
Altair, Deneb, and Vega. Altair is the
white dot above Sirius A; Deneb is the
dot to the upper right; and Vega lies
below Sirius B. But there is one
unfamiliar addition to the
constellations: our own Sun is the
second-magnitude star, shown as a small
dot just below and to the right of
Sirius
A. Date Source http://www.spacete
lescope.org/images/html/heic0516b.html
Author NASA, ESA Credit: G. Bacon
(STScI) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Sirius_A_and_B_
artwork.jpg/800px-Sirius_A_and_B_artwork
.jpg
[1] Adapted from: Description This
picture is an artist's impression
showing how the binary star system of
Sirius A and its diminutive blue
companion, Sirius B, might appear to an
interstellar visitor. The large,
bluish-white star Sirius A dominates
the scene, while Sirius B is the small
but very hot and blue white-dwarf star
on the right. The two stars revolve
around each other every 50 years. White
dwarfs are the leftover remnants of
stars similar to our Sun. The Sirius
system, only 8.6 light-years from
Earth, is the fifth closest stellar
system known. Sirius B is faint because
of its tiny size. Its diameter is only
7,500 miles (about 12 thousand
kilometres), slightly smaller than the
size of our Earth. The Sirius system is
so close to Earth that most of the
familiar constellations would have
nearly the same appearance as in our
own sky. In this rendition, we see in
the background the three bright stars
that make up the Summer Triangle:
Altair, Deneb, and Vega. Altair is the
white dot above Sirius A; Deneb is the
dot to the upper right; and Vega lies
below Sirius B. But there is one
unfamiliar addition to the
constellations: our own Sun is the
second-magnitude star, shown as a small
dot just below and to the right of
Sirius
A. Date Source http://www.spacete
lescope.org/images/html/heic0516b.html
Author NASA, ESA Credit: G. Bacon
(STScI) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Sirius_A_and_B_
artwork.jpg/800px-Sirius_A_and_B_artwork
.jpg
[2] Adapted from: Description This
picture is an artist's impression
showing how the binary star system of
Sirius A and its diminutive blue
companion, Sirius B, might appear to an
interstellar visitor. The large,
bluish-white star Sirius A dominates
the scene, while Sirius B is the small
but very hot and blue white-dwarf star
on the right. The two stars revolve
around each other every 50 years. White
dwarfs are the leftover remnants of
stars similar to our Sun. The Sirius
system, only 8.6 light-years from
Earth, is the fifth closest stellar
system known. Sirius B is faint because
of its tiny size. Its diameter is only
7,500 miles (about 12 thousand
kilometres), slightly smaller than the
size of our Earth. The Sirius system is
so close to Earth that most of the
familiar constellations would have
nearly the same appearance as in our
own sky. In this rendition, we see in
the background the three bright stars
that make up the Summer Triangle:
Altair, Deneb, and Vega. Altair is the
white dot above Sirius A; Deneb is the
dot to the upper right; and Vega lies
below Sirius B. But there is one
unfamiliar addition to the
constellations: our own Sun is the
second-magnitude star, shown as a small
dot just below and to the right of
Sirius
A. Date Source http://www.spacete
lescope.org/images/html/heic0516b.html
Author NASA, ESA Credit: G. Bacon
(STScI) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Sirius_A_and_B_
artwork.jpg/800px-Sirius_A_and_B_artwork
.jpg
[1] Globular Star Cluster 47 Tuc Image
Credit & Copyright: Dieter Willasch
(Astro-Cabinet) Explanation:
Globular star cluster 47 Tucanae is a
jewel of the southern sky. Also known
as NGC 104, it roams the halo of our
Milky Way Galaxy along with some 200
other globular star clusters. The
second brightest globular cluster
(after Omega Centauri) as seen from
planet Earth, it lies about 13,000
light-years away and can be spotted
naked-eye near the Small Magellanic
Cloud in the constellation of the
Toucan. The dense cluster is made up of
several million stars in a volume only
about 120 light-years across. Red giant
stars on the outskirts of the cluster
are easy to pick out as yellowish stars
in this sharp telescopic portrait.
Globular cluster 47 Tuc is also home to
exotic x-ray binary star systems. PD
source: http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/image/
1101/47Tuc_DW.jpg
[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
belong to a globular cluster.
globular galaxy. No blue dust clouds
remain, and all stars are inhabited
yellow stars. It may be that the life
of the Milky Way, then will position
itself around each star to harvest
every last light particle. If true, the
external appearance of the Milky way
would then appear to be a large radio
source, blocking all light behind it.
It seems very unlikely to me that all
light particles could be held in some
volume of space. Globular clusters
start to pull in to center of galaxy.
(show evidence for this in images of
galaxies). So there is a strong
argument that, even though it seems too
fast, the entire Milky Way galaxy may
be a globular galaxy in less 1 billion
years from now, because it simply does
not take long to get to other stars
(under 1000 years), and the parallel
growth of exploration that must occur
for living objects that can reach other
stars.
Humans may chose to feed the Earth star
and other stars under they ownership,
or simply use the mass of the stars
completely for food, fuel, building
materials, etc. The globular clusters
may feed their stars, or may consume
stars completely. Perhaps they use the
matter of large blue stars to reduce
their size to yellow stars, and then
consistently feed a yellow star to keep
it's mass constant. It seems more
likely that it would take much less
effort to simply consume stars
completely. New stars would then need
to be acquired. But yet, the fact
remains that there are very few red
stars in globular clusters (verify), so
this implies that stars are fed and
kept at a constant mass. But to feed a
star, mass needs to be acquired, and
probably more mass than is emitted from
surrounding stars, although light
particles from all the stars in a
globular cluster must slow the loss of
mass of the stars of the cluster.
Perhaps the red stars are simply too
dim to see. By examining stars of
globular clusters over long periods of
time, humans will be able to see
clearly if their mass does decrease.
Estimating the time to colonize all the
stars of the Milky Way Galaxy is
difficult. If we presume that the
number of stars colonized grows at 1%
every billion years, for 500 billion
stars, using the equation
NumberOfStarsColonized=RateOfColonizatio
n^Years with 500e9=1.000000001^20e9.
Twenty billion years would pass before
500 billion stars are colonized. But if
you imagine that it only takes living
objects 1000 years to reach another
star, which seems to be too long a
time, and presuming a group of living
objects goes to one star, and from
there two stars, doubling each time, to
colonize 500 billion stars would only
take (doubling every 1000 years)
500e9=2^(years/1000) = 39 thousand
years. Even if you take the velocity of
the Voyager ship which will take 70,000
years to go 4 light years to another
star, for us to reach 500 billion
stars, would only take
500e9=2^(years/70000) under 3 million
years. If humans take 1000 years to go
to one star at a time,colonizing 500
billion stars would simply take 500e9 x
1000 years, 500 trillion years, but
because the exploration occurs in
parallel, humans colonize other stars,
which then branch out to colonize other
more distant stars in parallel, it is
this parallel and exponential
exploration that greatly speeds the
colonization of stars.
[1] Description Hubble Illuminates
Cluster of Diverse Galaxies (Abell
S740), cropped to ESO 325-G004. Date
January 2007 Source
http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/ar
chive/releases/galaxy/elliptical/2007/08
/image/a/warn/ Author J.
Blakeslee (Washington State
University) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d3/Abell_S740%2C_cropped
_to_ESO_325-G004.jpg
[2] Description English: Messier
object 87 by Hubble space
telescope Date 18 August
2009 Source
http://wikisky.org/snapshot?img_siz
e=&img_res=&ra=12.5138&de=12.3896&angle=
0.0293&projection=tan&rotation=0.0&surve
y=astrophoto&img_id=905632&width=2160&he
ight=2160&img_borders=&interpolation=bic
ubic&jpeg_quality=0.8 Author
en:NASA, en:STScI,
en:WikiSky Permission (Reusing this
file) PD-HUBBLE PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/07/Messier_87_Hubble_Wik
iSky.jpg
integrates the matter of the Magellanic
Cloud Galaxies becoming about twice as
large as the original size of the Milky
Way globular galaxy.
[1] Elliptical Galaxy Centaurus A from
CFHT Credit & Copyright: Jean-Charles
Cuillandre (CFHT) & Giovanni Anselmi
(Coelum Astronomia), Hawaiian
Starlight Explanation: Why is
peculiar galaxy Centaurus A so dusty?
Dramatic dust lanes that run across the
galaxy's center mark Cen A. These dust
lanes are so thick they almost
completely obscure the galaxy's center
in visible light. This is particularly
unusual as Cen A's red stars and round
shape are characteristic of a giant
elliptical galaxy, a galaxy type
usually low in dark dust. Cen A, also
known as NGC 5128, is also unusual
compared to an average elliptical
galaxy because it contains a higher
proportion of young blue stars and is a
very strong source of radio emission.
Evidence indicates that Cen A is likely
the result of the collision of two
normal galaxies. During the collision,
many young stars were formed, but
details of the creation of Cen A's
unusual dust belts are still being
researched. Cen A lies only 13 million
light years away, making it the closest
active galaxy. Cen A, pictured above,
spans 60,000 light years and can be
seen with binoculars toward the
constellation of Centaurus. PD
source: http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/image/
0607/cenA_cfht.jpg
[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington
Globular Galaxies join.
The Andromeda Galaxy and Milky Way
collide and start the process of
joining together to form a single
galaxy which is twice the size of the
original Milky Way globular galaxy. The
Milky Way will then continue its
exploration, picking other galaxies to
move to, moving to those other
galaxies, integrating the matter of
those galaxies into the Milky Way and
continuing on to the next galaxy.
Interestingly, this process may be a
kind of massively large scale, "chase
and be chased" or "hunt and be hunted"
kind of occurrence, as the Milky Way
will seek galaxies that are weaker,
while trying to out run galaxies that
are stronger than itself. It may be
that a galaxy may initially think that
they can control the living objects of
another galaxy, only to find that they
are evenly or even out matched, and
lose resources to the other galaxy.
Either way, there is probably always a
certain amount of equality because of
the similar nature of evolution of life
in any galaxy. All organisms would
probably all be somewhat evenly matched
- the major differences perhaps being
one only of size and quantity of
organisms.
[1] See Explanation. Clicking on the
picture will download the highest
resolution version available. In the
Center of the Virgo Cluster Credit &
Copyright: Jean-Charles Cuillandre
(CFHT), Hawaiian Starlight,
CFHT Explanation: The Virgo Cluster
of Galaxies is the closest cluster of
galaxies to our Milky Way Galaxy. The
Virgo Cluster is so close that it spans
more than 5 degrees on the sky - about
10 times the angle made by a full Moon.
It contains over 100 galaxies of many
types - including spiral, elliptical,
and irregular galaxies. The Virgo
Cluster is so massive that it is
noticeably pulling our Galaxy toward
it. The cluster contains not only
galaxies filled with stars but also gas
so hot it glows in X-rays. Motions of
galaxies in and around clusters
indicate that they contain more dark
matter than any visible matter we can
see. Pictured above, the center of the
Virgo cluster might appear to some as a
human face, and includes bright Messier
galaxies M86 at the top, M84 on the far
right, NGC 4388 at the bottom, and NGC
4387 in the middle. PD
source: http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/image/
0308/virgocenter_cfht.jpg
[2] Storyboard image by Ted
Huntington GNU
source: Ted Huntington